REESE  LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Deceived  ,  igo     . 

Accession  No.    92435       .   Class  No. 


SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY 


DESIGNED  TO 

RATIONALIZE   AND    HARMONIZE 
TEACHING  PROCESSES 


BY 


ANDREW  THOMAS  SMITH,  PD.  D. 

PRINCIPAL   OF   STATE    NORMAL   SCHOOL,    MANSFIELD,    PA. 


SILVER,  BURDETT  AND  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK         BOSTON         CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT,  1900, 
BY  SILVER,  BURDETT  AND  COMPANY 


PREFACE. 


THIS  book  is  intended  for  that  great  and  growing  body  of  ear- 
nest teachers  and  students  of  education  who  believe  that  there  is 
an  underlying  philosophy  of  teaching.  It  contains  little  that  will 
interest  such  as  are  in  search  of  ready-made  materials  and  attract- 
ive devices  for  use  in  the  class-room,  to  relieve  the  teacher  from 
the  labor  of  thoughtful  preparation. 

The  author  has  aimed  to  furnish  a  systematic  treatment  of  the 
problems  of  teaching.  He  does  not  claim  that  it  is  an  exhaustive 
treatment,  but  he  believes  it  to  be  one  without  contradictions,  and 
with  sufficient  emphasis  upon  essentials  to  make  those  who  mas- 
ter it,  and  who  possess  the  elements  of  a  proper  personality,  able 
to  teach  with  an  intelligent  regard  for  the  rationale  of  their  art. 

To  those  who  are  not  inclined  to  pursue  the  study  of  the  prob- 
lems of  teaching  into  the  realm  of  their  application,  but  who  are 
striving  to  master  the  various  phases  of  the  philosophy  of  educa- 
tion, from  the  Standpoint  both  of  the  learner  and  of  the  truth  to 
be  employed,  Parts  I  and  II  are  commended. 

Those  who  desire  to  turn  aside  from  a  consideration  of  the 
mind,  as  treated  in  the  various  psychologies,  and  to  devote  their 
time  to  a  more  direct  study  of  the  problems  that  arise  in  present- 
ing the  different  branches  of  the  curriculum,  will  find  these  dealt 
with,  in  both  their  broader  and  their  more  specific  aspects,  in 
Parts  II  and  HI. 

A.  T.  S. 

MANSFIELD,  PA.,  1900. 


92435 


CONTENTS. 


PACK 

INTRODUCTION 5 

PART   I.     Nature  and  Development  of  the  Mental  Faculties. 

CHAPTER 

I.    GENERAL  TREATMENT 17 

II.    SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 23 

III.  PERCEPTION 25 

IV.  MEMORY 29 

Direct  Aids  to  the  Cultivation  of  Memory 37 

V.    IMAGINATION 39 

Kinds  of  Imagination 41 

Dangers  of  the  Imagination 44 

Practical  Aids  Recommended 47 

Directions  for  Cultivating  the  Imagination 49 

VI.    THOUGHT 51 

Aids  to  the  Development  of  Thought 55 

VII.    THE  FEELINGS,  OR  SENSIBILITIES 60 

Methods  of  Cultivating  the  Feelings 64 

VIII.    THE  WILL 72 

IX.    ATTENTION  88 


PART  II.     General  Philosophy  of  Method. 

X.    THE  NOTION,  OR  CONCEPT 97 

Definition  and  Description  Distinguished 104 

Content  and  Extent  of  Notions  ' 105 

Variation  of  Content  and  Extent  of  Notions 108 

XI.    DISTINCTIONS  OF  METHOD  BASED  UPON  THE  TRUTHS  OF 

THE  CONCEPT in 

The  Four  Methods  Distinguished 114 

Order  of  Use  of  Contrasted  Methods 124 

Special  Processes  in  Teaching  Facts  and  Art 134 

Facts 135 

Arts 136 

The  Concrete  and  the  Abstract  in  Teaching 139 

XII.    THE  ACTUAL  REALITIES  OF  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS 144 

3 


CONTENTS. 


PART  III.    Applied  Methodology. 

PAGE 

XIII.  READING i74 

Primary  Reading 176 

Word  Method 188 

Advanced  Reading 200 

XIV.  LANGUAGE  LESSONS 213 

Scope  of  the  Work 216 

Set  of  Graduated  Exercises 223 

XV.  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 226 

Purpose 229 

Method 233 

XVI.  SPELLING 255 

Plans  for  Studying  Spelling 258 

XVII.  HISTORY 260 

Historic  Facts 266 

Philosophy  of  History 281 

XVIII.  LITERATURE 283 

XIX.  GEOGRAPHY 292 

Introductory  Geography 294 

Systematic  Geography 306 

Text-book  Course 314 

Commercial  Geography 317 

Physical  Geography 317 

XX.  NATURE  STUDY 319 

XXI.  ARITHMETIC 324 

Course  from  One  to  Ten 332 

Course  with  Numbers  above  Ten 340 

XXII.  SPECIAL  ART? 353 

Writing 353 

Drawing 356 

Vocal  Music 358 


SYSTEMATIC   METHODOLOGY, 


INTRODUCTION. 

WORKS  on  teaching  abound  in  which  are  to  be 
found  many  and  varied  recommendations  in  method, 
most  of  which  do  not  rise  above  the  dignity  of  reason- 
able devices.  As  these  schemes  have  been  drawn  from 
the  experience  and  observation  of  successful  teachers  ; 
as  they  have  been  composed  of  the  plans  that  have 
"worked"  well  for  the  accomplishment  of  their  several 
ends  ;  and  as  these  ends  have  been  as  varied  as  the 
mental  attitudes  of  the  persons  who  aimed  at  them,  we 
have  been  forced  to  receive  in  the  name  of  "  Methods  " 
a  great  mass  of  inconsistent  and  sometimes  even  contra- 
dictory items  without  a  show  of  either  unity  or  com- 
pleteness. All  this  has  tended  to  throw  the  subject 
of  pedagogy  into  disfavor,  and  has  caused  men  to  hold 
up  to  ridicule  every  effort  at  systematization  even  before 
it  is  examined. 

Still  it  is  the  writer's  belief  that  when  those  who 
practice  the  art  of  teaching  learn  the  conditions  involved 
in  it,  pedagogy  will  be  found  to  submit  to  as  great  a 
degree  of  order  as  will  any  of  the  other  applied  sciences. 
He  believes  also  that  these  conditions  can  be  as  fully 
known  as  can  the  conditions  for  the  application  of  any 
science  which  has  to  do  with  men  in  all  the  variety 

5 


O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

which  they  present,  due  to  differing  impulses,  opinions, 
motives,  etc.  And  further,  he  holds  that  we  do  now 
know  enough  of  the  principles  involved  and  of  the 
secrets  of  their  application,  to  render  this  subject  sys- 
tematic and  reasonable,  not  only  in  the  principles  to 
be  announced,  but  also  in  the  schemes  for  their  applica- 
tion to  the  several  subjects  of  the  school  curriculum ; 
and  that  generalizations  in  method  applicable  to  one 
school  subject  need  not  be  violated  forthwith  in  others, 
on  the  ground  that  the  subjects  have  nothing  in  com- 
mon and  hence  need  not  be  treated  as  similar. 

Two  main  lines  of  investigation  are  necessary  in 
order  to  render  our  knowledge  of  methods  rational. 
We  must  first  study  the  human  mind,  not  necessarily  in 
its  completeness,  but  sufficiently  to  bring  to  light  its 
absolute  needs  in  the  act  of  learning  ;  but,  because  the 
human  mind  is  complex,  it  will  be  found  necessary  to 
treat  its  several  capacities  separately,  discussing  their 
nature  and  the  means  by  which  they  unfold.  In  the  sec- 
ond place,  the  nature  of  truth  needs  to  be  investigated 
in  order  to  determine  the  conditions  under  which  the 
human  mind  can  comprehend  it ;  and,  as  the  school 
branches  are  varied  and  appear  to  many  to  be  totally 
dissimilar,  they  need  to  be  harmonized  and  to  have  their 
fundamental  similarities  emphasized.  Although  these 
two  phases  of  the  study  are  clearly  distinguishable  in 
thought,  and  we  can  easily  tell  when  reference  is  being 
made  to  the  mind  and  when  it  is  being  made  to  truth  as 
embraced  in  the  subjects  of  study,  no  attempt  will  be 
made  to  keep  them  distinct  throughout  the  treatment. 
Whenever  it  is  believed  that  the  discussion  of  the  main 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

question  of  pedagogy  can  be  clarified  by  reference,  in 
the  same  section,  to  both  the  truth  and  the  mind  which 
must  apprehend  it,  they  will  be  combined. 

To  render  this  entire  discussion  more  complete  and 
systematic,  we  must  see  to  it  that  terms  are  used 
throughout  with  consistency  ;  we  must  be  careful  that  no 
recommendations  are  given  in  one  connection  and  vio- 
lated in  another  ;  and  we  must  make  clear  to  the  reader 
that,  instead  of  geography,  reading,  grammar,  arithmetic, 
etc.,  being  taught  by  methods  peculiar  to  each  and  totally 
different  from  each  other,  they  all  obey  certain  well- 
defined  fundamental  laws  applicable  to  truth  in  general. 
They  are,  therefore,  taught  alike,  their  seeming  differ- 
ences being  due  merely  to  variations  in  the  application 
of  the  law  made  necessary  by  the  detailed  differences 
in  the  matters  with  which  we  deal.  Only  when  the  last- 
named  truth  is  comprehended  can  our  teaching  be 
made  masterful  and  our  appreciation  of  method  become 
thorough.  Till  then  the  highest  plane  we  can  reach  in 
school  work  is  that  of  successful  imitators,  without  a 
reasonable  ground  for  the  acceptance  or  rejection  of  any 
method  or  device  that  may  be  thrust  upon  our  atten- 
tion. He  who  teaches  well  because  he  was  born  with  a 
capacity  for  doing  things  in  this  department  well,  may 
become  a  successful  teacher,  but  he  alone  can  become 
an  artistic  teacher  who  comprehends  the  rationale  of  his 
art,  and  then  learns  how  to  perform  skillfully  the  things 
he  knows. 

It  is  an  aim  of  this  work  to  make  clear  to  the  reader 
that  all  the  school  studies  which  have  to  do  with  a  body 
of  truth  to  be  comprehended  are  capable  of  being 


8  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

taught  after  the  same  comprehensive  plan ;  that  this 
plan  is  determined  by  the  requirements  of  the  nature  of 
the  truth  itself  and  of  the  mind  which  would  master 
it;  and  that  the  varieties  of  so-called  "  methods  "  of 
learning  are  simply  variations  of  the  one  comprehensive 
plan,  made  necessary  by  the  fact  that  the  truth  em- 
braced in  one  branch  of  learning  is  different  in  kind 
from  that  presented  in  another.  Or,  more  specifically 
expressed,  it  is  this  :  generalizations  of  a  given  order 
are  to  be  comprehended  only  in  the  light  of  the  appro- 
priate individuals  embraced  within  them.  Here  we  have 
our  one  comprehensive  plan,  or  principle  of  learning. 
This  plan,  and  not  some  contrary  one,  is  determined  by 
the  necessities  of  our  thinking  and  by  the  fact  that, 
in  the  world  of  things  about  which  we.  study,  only 
individuals  exist,  while  generalizations  are  merely  con- 
trivances of  man,  wrought  out  for  his  convenience  in 
mastering  the  truths  concerning  this  world  of  real  but 
individual  things.  The  inductive  method  of  teaching 
formal  grammar  and  the  observational  method  of  pre- 
senting the  subject  of  introductory  geography,  are 
simply  two  different  applications  of  the  above-mentioned 
fundamental  principle  of  learning,  made  different  by  the 
fact  that  the  data  in  grammar  call  for  an  exercise  of 
thought  apart  from  perception,  while  the  data  of  intro- 
ductory geography  call  for  an  exercise  of  thought  in  per- 
ception. Or,  again,  recognizing  the  uniformity  of  mental 
procedure  from  a  unit  or  whole  to  its  constituent  parts, 
in  the  effort  at  mastery  of  a  single  thing,  the  analytic 
method  of  systematic  geography,  the  sentence  method 
in  primary  reading,  and  the  method  which  would  use  a 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

problem  in  arithmetic,  to  be  analyzed  as  the  preparatory 
step  for  the  comprehension  of  an  arithmetical  rule,  are 
all  found  to  be  but  so  many  different  forms  under  which 
the  one  comprehensive  law  is  expressed.  The  only  dif- 
ficulty in  the  way  of  thus  applying  the  above  law  of 
analytic  mental  procedure  is  found  to  be  that  of  de- 
termining what  is  the  unit  of  study  in  the  several 
school  branches,  and  hence,  where  is  the  point  of  depar- 
ture in  their  systematic  mastery.  Because  this  thought 
is  important,  and  perhaps  not  without  its  difficulties, 
it  will  receive  extended  treatment  in  a  separate  place 
and  be  frequently  repeated  in  its  proper  connection. 

It  is  another  aim  of  this  work  to  make  clear  to  the 
learner  that  there  are  many  school  subjects  which  do 
not  consist  of  a  body  of  truth  to  be  comprehended,  but 
rather  of  an  art  to  be  acquired  (as  writing,  drawing, 
vocal  expression,  etc.),  or  of  a  body  of  materials  to  be 
simply  stored  in  the  mind  (as  spelling,  the  simple  facts 
of  history,  —  in  so  far  as  they  need  to  be  committed  to 
memory,  —  the  multiplication  table  and  other  tables 
which,  upon  being  comprehended,  must  be  so  fixed  as  to 
be  ready  for  service,  etc.).  Neither  of  the  above  kinds 
of  studies  can  be  subjected  to  the  treatment  required  in 
the  case  of  truth  that  is  to  be  comprehended,  but  they 
must  be  given  a  treatment  peculiar  to  their  nature. 
They  call  for  a  different  form  of  exercise  of  the  mind, 
and  are  not  to  be  thought  of  as  illustrating  any  of  the 
laws  of  mental  activity  required  in  the  mastery  of  a 
body  of  truth.  Directions  will  be  given  for  the  learner's 
help  in  dealing  with  such  subjects  ;  though,  when  they 
occur  as  parts  of  a  more  comprehensive  subject,  as  the 


ID  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

multiplication  table  in  arithmetic,  they  will  be  inciden- 
tally considered  as  side  issues,  rather  than  in  distinct 
chapters. 

Certain  terms  have  already  been  used,  and  will  be 
very  freely  used  throughout  these  pages,  and  it  seems 
important  that  we  should  have  at  this  time  a  definite 
statement  of  their  meanings.  They  are  principle, 
method,  and  device. 

A  principle  in  pedagogy  is  a  fundamental  truth  which 
is  to  serve  as  the  basis  of  method  in  the  teaching  art. 
These  principles  are  formulated  from  what  we  know  of 
the  human  mind  and  of  the  fund  of  truth  with  which 
humanity  is  to  be  educated.  We  know  nothing  of  the 
essence  of  mind  as  we  know  nothing  of  the  essence 
of  matter.  Phenomena  alone  are  open  to  our  study. 
What  mind  or  matter  does  we  may  know,  but  not  what 
either  is.  When  we  have  discovered  the  necessary  se- 
quences in  the  actions  of  human  beings,  we  have  learned 
the  principles  of  human  nature  —  "the  constitutional 
propensities  common  to  the  human  species."  In  so  far 
as  these  are  now  known,  they  may  be  made  to  serve  as 
the  bases  of  our  various  methods  of  teaching.  These 
principles  of  the  human  mind  may  have  differing  degrees 
of  generality  in  their  application.  Thus,  the  principle 
that  the  mind  develops  only  through  its  own  activity 
is  one  of  wider  application  than  the  principle  that  the 
memory  is  made  most  wisely  strong  by  being  habituated 
to  act  according  to  the  rational  laws  of  association.  The 
former  of  these  includes  the  latter,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  it  refers  to  the  other  faculties  or  capacities  of  the 
human  mind  as  well. 


INTRODUCTION.  I  I 

A  method  in  pedagogy  is  a  rational  plan  or  series  of 
steps  for  effecting  results  in  teaching.  According  to 
Kant,  "  Method  is  procedure  according  to  principles." 

A  method  of  teaching,  then,  is  procedure  in  teaching 
according  to  the  principles  of  teaching.  Whoever  re- 
gards methods  as  blind  and  a  study  of  methods  as 
blinding  must  be  thinking  only  of  an  improper  study  of 
methods.  If  viewed  in  the  light  of  their  underlying 
principles  —  and  this  is  the  only  intelligent  form  of 
study  of  methods  —  they  will  not  destroy  individuality 
nor  in  any  way  prevent  growth.  On  the  other  hand,  an 
intelligent  study  of  methods  of  teaching,  or  of  any  other 
art,  will  prevent  the  narrowness  inseparable  from  the 
possession  of  but  one  idea.  Methods,  like  principles, 
may  have  varying  degrees  of  breadth  in  their  application. 
Thus  we  have  the  analytic  method  of  study,  which  con- 
sists in  taking  units  of  study  and  disintegrating  them  to 
find  the  parts  or  elements  of  which  they  are  composed. 
This  may  be  done  with  a  problem,  a  sentence,  a  myth, 
or  a  social  custom.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  the 
sentence  method  of  studying  primary  reading,  which 
consists  in  presenting  the  sentence  at  the  outset  in 
reading  and  then  proceeding  to  a  consideration  of  its 
component  parts,  —  words,  and  the  letters  and  sounds  of 
which  they  are  composed.  This  is  seen  to  be  simply 
the  analytic  method  limited  in  its  application  to  a  special 
department  of  study,  that  of  primary  reading. 

A  device  in  pedagogy  is  simply  a  contrivance  for 
applying  a  certain  method.  It  shows  the  teacher's  in- 
ventive skill  in  the  provision  he  makes  for  the  needs  of 
individual  pupils.  To  borrow  simply  the  devices  of 


12  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

another  would  tend  to  destroy  a  teacher's  individuality  ; 
but  to  comprehend  the  methods,  which  may  be  the  com- 
mon possession  of  all  teachers,  makes  possible  a  fertility 
of  expedients  or  devices,  without  at  any  time  violating 
the  underlying  principles  of  a  true  pedagogy.  The  only 
way  to  give  assurance  that  one  will  not  resort  to  winning 
but  irrational  and  conflicting  devices  is  to  educate  him 
thoroughly  in  the  principles  and  methods  of  his  art. 

"  Method  is  a  way  of  reaching  a  given  end  by  a  series 
of  acts  which  tend  to  secure  it  "  ;  device  refers  rather  to 
a  single  action.  We  may  teach  primary  reading  accord- 
ing to  the  sentence  method,  but  as  a  device  we  may 
use  either  the  blackboard  or  a  chart.  We  may  teach 
geography  by  the  analytic  method,  but  whether  we  shall 
use  a  globe,  a  wall  map,  or  a  book  in  a  given  lesson  is 
a  choice  of  devices. 

In  order  to  make  this  distinction  still  clearer,  and  thus 
prepare  the  way  for  an  intelligent  study  of  both  the 
general  and  the  special  methods  which  are  to  follow,  let 
me  express  it  differently. 

1.  Generalizations  of  a  given   order  can  be  compre- 
hended only  in  the  light  of  the  individuals   embraced 
within  them. 

2.  Words,  which  are  the  symbols  of  things,  can  be- 
come significant  only  in  the  light  of  the  things  which 
they  symbolize. 

3.  In  teaching,  the  actual  reality  of  each  subject  of 
study  should  be  brought  directly  before  the  mind  of  the 
learner  for  the  exercise  of  his  powers. 

4.  Since  single  things  are  the  only  real  existences  in 
a  world  of  things,  we  should  proceed,  in  our  study  of  the 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

single  thing,  from  the  unit,  as  presented,  to  its  several 
component  parts  —  or  analytically. 

5.  In  the  attempt  to  make  generalizations  we  should 
proceed   from    the    individual    things    as    presented   to 
us  in   nature,  to  their  comparative  consideration  —  or 
inductively. 

6.  In  applying  these  methods  the  teacher  may  use 
any  one  of  many  devices.     He  may  have  the  children 
bring  to  the  schoolroom  the  things  to  be  studied,  or  he 
may  take  the  children  for  a  walk  over  the  country ;  he 
may  provide  a  separate  specimen  to  be  handled  by  each 
child,  or  he  may  have  but  one  specimen  to  be  used  by 
himself,  etc. 

The  first  and  second  statements  may  be  considered 
as  very  general  principles,  the  first  based  on  the  nature 
of  the  mind  and  the  second  on  the  nature  of  things. 
The  third  is  a  more  specific  principle,  based  upon  the 
first  two,  and  stated  with  more  direct  reference  to  its 
serving  as  a  guide  to  teaching.  As  no  thought  move- 
ment is  yet  indicated,  we  have  no  method.  But  in  the 
fourth  statement  is  set  forth  the  analytic  method,  which 
is  applicable  to  the  study  of  individual  things ;  while  in 
the  fifth  is  set  forth  the  inductive  method,  which  is 
applicable  to  the  study  of  generalizations.  Both  of 
these  are  based  upon  the  preceding  principles.  In  the 
sixth  statement  reference  is  made  to  devices  for  working 
according  to  the  above  methods.  Devices,  as  well  as 
methods,  are  rational  only  when  their  use  is  in  obedience 
to  the  truth  of  the  underlying  principles. 

One  other  line  of  thought  should  be  taken  up  in  order 
to  render  this  outlook  sufficiently  full  for  its  purpose. 


14  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

Pedagogy  is  in  large  part  a  derived  science.  The  being 
to  be  educated  is  dual  in  his  nature,  —  composed  of  body 
and  mind.  Pedagogy  must,  therefore,  borrow  principles 
from  physiology  and  psychology.  But  while  psychology 
will  furnish  us  the  principles  derived  from  mental  activ- 
ities in  general,  two  other  sciences  have  been  developed 
from  the  study  of  man's  mental,  as  distinguished  from 
his  bodily,  nature.  Man  is  susceptible  of  moral  growth, 
and,  therefore,  pedagogy  must  borrow  from  ethics. 
Human  thinking  has  its  laws  very  widely  formulated  in 
the  science  of  logic,  and  hence  pedagogy  must  borrow 
from  that  source.  But,  in  each  one  of  these,  man  may 
be  regarded  as  an  isolated  personality,  while,  indeed,  he 
is  a  social  creature.  A  man  in  the  midst  of  men  is  a 
very  different  being  from  a  man  in  isolation.  Entirely 
alone  he  is  abnormal ;  it  requires  society  to  make  pos- 
sible his  best  growth.  As  a  fish  is  created  to  live  in 
water,  so  man  is  created  to  live  in  society.—  This,  added 
to  the  fact  that  teaching  is  done  through  systems  of 
schools,  requires  pedagogy  to  borrow  from  sociology  and 
the  various  sciences  of  government. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  pedagogy  has  a  wide  field  in 
which  it  is  an  independent  science.  The  relative  values 
of  school  subjects,  the  action  of  examinations,  the  effects 
of  co-education,  are  some  of  the  questions  for  pedagogy 
alone  to  solve. 

It  is  the  recognition  of  this  derived  nature  of  so  much 
of  pedagogy  that  enables  one  to  justify  a  deductive  pro- 
cedure like  that  employed  in  this  work.  The  gener- 
alizations thus  employed  at  the  outset  are  results  of*  the 
foundation  sciences  on  which  we  build.  Nor  does  the 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

fact  that  pedagogy  is  in  part  an  independent  science 
disturb  this  position,  for  the  average  teacher  is  not 
expected  to  become  an  educational  scientist.  Expert 
investigators  are  making  these  studies,  and  the  results 
of  their  inquiries  are  set  forth  in  books  on  methods,  to 
the  end  that  practical  teachers  may,  by  obeying  them, 
become  artists. 


PART  I. 

NATURE  AND   DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE 
MENTAL   FACULTIES. 


CHAPTER    I. 
GENERAL  TREATMENT. 

THE  term  "mental  faculty"  needs  a  word  of  explana- 
tion before  entering  upon  the  conventional  list  of  faculties 
and  the  means  of  cultivating  each.  The  objection  is 
often  made  that,  when  one  speaks  of  the  faculties  of  the 
mind,  he  teaches  that  the  mind  is  divided  into  separate 
parts,  and  that  each  part,  called  a  faculty,  acts  inde- 
pendently of  the  other  parts.  Let  it  be  remembered, 
then,  that  the  whole  mind,  or  better,  simply  the  mind, 
is  active  in  whatever  form  of  mental  activity  is  taking 
place  ;  and  that  we  give  to  it  the  different  faculty  names 
to  indicate  the  forms  of  mental  activity  which  predom- 
inate in  the  several  instances.  By  a  faculty,  then, 
we  mean  simply  the  soul's  capacity  or  ability  to  do  a 
distinct  kind  of  work.  We  may  be  said,  therefore,  to 
have  as  many  mental  faculties  as  there  are  distinct  kinds 
of  work  that  the  mind  can  perform.  A  clear  analogy 
may  be  found  in  popular  usage.  If  a  man  is  trained  to 
do  a  certain  quality  of  work  in  wood,  we  call  him  a  car- 
penter ;  if  this  same  man  is  trained  to  do  work  in  paint, 

17 


1 8  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

we  call  him  a  painter ;  if  he  is  trained  to  do  work  in 
stone,  we  call  him  a  stone  mason.  Now,  evidently,  the 
man,  and  not  a  part  of  him,  is  carpenter ;  the  man,  and 
not  a  portion  of  him,  is  painter  ;  the  man,  and  not  a 
section  of  him,  is  stone  mason.  This  man  has  the  ca- 
pacity to  do  three  kinds  of  work,  and  in  each  instance 
we  give  him  the  name  derived  from  the  kind  of  work  in 
which  he  is  engaged.  Following  this  analogy,  we  may 
safely  assert  that  the  mind  has  as  many  faculties  as 
there  are  distinct  kinds  of  work  revealed  to  the  con- 
sciousness of  man.  Examining  himself,  then,  each  man 
finds  that  he  possesses  the  ability  to  get  truth,  or  to 
know;  this  capacity  is  called  the  intellect.  Further 
examination  reveals  to  man  the  fact  that  he  has  the 
capacity  to  experience  pleasures  and  pains,  or  to  have 
feelings  ;  this  capacity  is  called  the  sensibility.  Finally 
he  finds  that  there  is  within  him  the  ability  of  self-direc- 
tion, or  of  action  directed  to  some  chosen  end ;  this  ca- 
pacity is  called  the  will. 

Instead  of  treating  the  culture  of  these  three  broader 
capacities  of  the  mind,  we  can  gain  our  ends  better  by 
extending  the  analysis  and  then  studying  the  means  of 
cultivating  each  of  the  sub-divisions  —  also  called  facul- 
ties —  somewhat  in  detail.  Man  finds  upon  examination 
that  he  has  the  power  to  get  truth  from  things  that  are 
present  to  his  mind  at  the  time  he  studies  them.  Such 
knowledge  is  called  presentative  knowledge.  If  this 
power  is  exercised  in  looking  within  his  own  mind  and 
learning  what  is  taking  place  there,  it  is  called  inner 
perception,  or  self-consciousness.  If  this  power  of  get- 
ting truth  from  things  at  first  hand  is  exercised  upon 


GENERAL    TREATMENT.  19 

things  external  to  the  mind,  it  is  called  perception.  The 
avenues  through  which  we  can  learn  directly  about  a 
world  of  things  are  the  senses,  —  sight,  hearing,  touch, 
taste,  and  smell.  Perception  is,  then,  the  soul's  capacity 
for  getting  knowledge  of  external  things  immediately 
through  the  medium  of  the  senses. 

Self-consciousness  reveals  to  man  a  capacity  for  get- 
ting ideas  of  things  when  those  things  are  absent  from 
him.  Such  knowledge  is  called  representative  knowl- 
edge. If  these  items  of  knowledge  are  made  to  appear 
in  the  forms  in  which  they  were  originally  acquired,  and 
are  then  recognized  as  old  acquaintances,  it  is  called 
remembered  knowledge,  and  the  capacity  for  so  acting 
is  called  memory.  It  is  not  necessary,  however,  that  our 
knowledge  should  reappear  and  remain  in  the  forms  in 
which  it  was  acquired.  We  have  the  ability  to  take  these 
old  items  and  to  put  them  together  into  new  wholes, 
thus  producing  mental  pictures  different  from  anything 
we  have  ever  perceived,  and  perhaps  unlike  anything 
that  exists  in  the  world  of  realities.  The  power  of  cre- 
ating such  mental  pictures  is  called  imagination. 

Each  of  the  above  powers  has  to  do  with  individual 
things  considered  simply  as  individuals,  and  the  product 
is  a  mental  image  of  a  single  thing.  The  element  of  gen- 
eralization or  of  classification  has  not  yet  appeared  in  the 
analysis.  Self-examination,  however,  reveals  to  us  an 
ability  to  take  these  products  of  perception,  memory  and 
imagination,  and,  by  comparing  them,  to  derive  certain 
higher  and  more  general  forms  of  knowledge  than  can 
be  secured  through  the  study  of  isolated  individual 
things.  This  process  of  comparing,  sorting,  and  arrang- 


2O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

ing  the  products  of  the  lower  faculties  we  call  thinking, 
and  the  power  we  possess  of  doing  this  we  call  thought. 
The  knowledge  thus  secured  is  called  elaborative 
knowledge.  Psychologists  usually  distinguish  three 
stages  of  thinking.  There  is,  first,  the  formation  of  the 
general  notion,  or  concept.  The  concept  is  the  mental 
content  we  have,  answering  to  a  class  of  things,  and  it  is 
represented  in  language  by  common  names,  such  as 
mountain,  boy,  animal,  square.  The  power  we  possess 
to  form  such  general  notions  is  called  conception.  So 
much  pedagogical  significance  attaches  to  the  formation 
of  concepts  that  we  shall  devote  to  it  a  separate  chapter 
under  the  heading,  "The  Notion,  or  Concept." 

The  next  stage  of  thinking  consists  in  a  comparison 
of  concepts.  This  process  of  comparing  concepts  is  called 
judging,  and  the  product  thus  reached  is  called  a  judg- 
ment. In  language  the  judgment  is  represented  by  a 
declarative  sentence  called  a  proposition.  Take  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  sentence,  Knowledge  is  power. 
Here  the  two  concepts  are  knowledge  and  power.  These 
are  compared  and  their  relation  of  agreement  is  ex- 
pressed by  "is."  This  act  of  comparing  is  called  judg- 
ing, and  the  product  reached  (the  judgment)  is  expressed 
by  the  proposition,  Knowledge  is  power.  The  faculty 
of  comparing  ideas  or  concepts  is  called  judgment. 

The  last  stage  of  thinking  consists  in  a  comparison  of 
judgments.  This  process  of  comparing  judgments  is 
called  reasoning,  and  the  power  of  comparing  judgments 
is  the  power  of  reason.  In  language  the  process  of 
reasoning  is  represented  by  a  combination  of  propositions 
called  a  syllogism.  Syllogistic  reasoning  consists  in  so 


GENERAL    TREATMENT.  21 

comparing  two  related  judgments  as  to  discover  a  third. 
The  propositions  from  which  we  argue  are  called  the 
premises.  The  one  'at  which  we  arrive  in  thought  is 
called  the  conclusion. 

Example  of  a  syllogism  :  — 

All  men  are  fallible.     (Major  premise.) 
All  kings  are  men.     (Minor  premise.) 
Therefore,  All  kings  are  fallible.     (Conclusion.) 
"  The  essence  of  the  process  consists  in  gathering  the 
truth   that   is  contained  in  the  premises  when  joined 
together,  and  carrying  it  with  us  into  the  conclusion, 
where  it  is  embodied  in  a  new  proposition  or  assertion. 
We  extract  out  of  the  premises  all  the  information  which 
is  useful  for  the  purpose  in  view  —  and  this  is  the  whole 
which  reasoning  accomplishes." 

It  is  believed  that  such  a  detailed  analysis  of  the  sen- 
sibility and  of  the  will  can  add  nothing  to  the  value  of 
the  present  work,  so  it  will  not  be  done.  Tabulating 
our  results,  then,  so  that  the  relations  of  the  several 
parts  can  be  more  readily  apprehended,  we  have  the 
following  :  — 

Faculties  of  the  human  mind  : 

I.    Intellect. 

1.  Self-consciousness.  )  These  furnish  presentative 

2.  Perception.  )      knowledge. 

3.  Memory.  )  These  deal  with  represen- 

4.  Imagination.  j       tative  knowledge. 

This  es      elaborative 


5.  Thought. 

knowledge. 


22  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

(a)  Conception. 

(b)  Judgment. 

(c)  Reason. 

II.    Sensibility. 
III.    Will. 

Detailed  directions  will  be  given  to  aid  in  the  more 
complete  understanding,  and  in  the  cultivation,  of  each 
of  these  faculties.  No  attempt  will  be  made  to  add 
such  directions  as  are  considered  impracticable  in  modern 
school  work. 


SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS.  23 


CHAPTER  II. 
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS. 

THIS  power  that  a  mind  possesses  of  knowing  itself  may 
vary  through  many  stages,  from  simply  being  aware  of 
what  takes  place  within  us,  up  to  that  more  profound  re- 
alization of  self,  which  results  from  thinking  intently  upon 
the  nature  of  our  being  and  the  dominating  purposes  of 
our  lives.  This  higher  and  more  reflective  type  of  self- 
consciousness  is  not  to  be  looked  for  in  the  very  young, 
and,  if  found  there,  can  be  taken  as  an  almost  certain 
indication  of  an  abnormal  state  of  mind.  We  should 
expect  little  children  to  be  naturally  heedless,  and,  since 
they  are  usually  impulsive,  to  be  rather  incautious.  But 
while  this  is  the  condition  in  which  we  may  expect 
to  find  children,  it  is  not  what  we  should  strive  to 
cultivate  within  them.  Their  heedlessness  and  indiffer- 
ence must  be  gradually  forced  to  give  way  to  caution  ; 
and  their  impulsive  actions  must  be  *  supplanted  by 
actions  which  are  the  outgrowth  of  a  wise  forethought 
and  especially  of  a  careful  self-examination.  Even  Rous- 
seau's declaration,  "  I  would  rather  require  a  child  ten 
years  of  age  to  be  five  feet  tall  than  to  be  judicious," 
must  be  taken  only  as  an  indication  of  what  we  may 
expect  to  find  in  children,  not  of  what  we  are  to  aim  at 
in  their  education.  What  can  we  do,  then,  to  develop 
within  pupils,  as  they  advance,  this  reflective  type  of 
self-consciousness  ? 


24  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

1.  Lead  the  child,  by  an  occasional  reminder,  to  con- 
sider the  effect  of  his  actions  upon  others. 

2.  Aid  him  to  examine  the  purity  and  elevation  of 
the  motives  that  prompt  his  conduct. 

3.  Get    him   to  make  note  of   the  various  kinds  of 
activity  that  he  finds    have  the  power  to   correct   his 
mental  disorders,  such  as  anger,  fear,  hatred,  etc. 

4.  Lead    him,    through    subsequent    reflection    upon 
actual  experiences,  to  note  how  certain  states  of  mind 
prejudice  his  thought   either  for  or  against   men  and 
measures.     The  memory  will  be  found  an  indispensable 
aid  in  this  matter. 

5.  Have  him  study  himself  for  the  purpose  of  discov- 
ering the  nature  of  his  likes  and  dislikes,  the  kind  of 
subject  (memory,   observation,   reasoning)   that   he  can 
most  easily  acquire,  his  customary  disposition  (whether 
thoughtful,  impulsive,  kind,  envious,  etc.),  his  habit  of 
will  (whether  decided  or  vacillating,  etc.). 


PERCEPTION.  25 


CHAPTER  III. 
PERCEPTION. 

THIS  is  a  faculty  often  thought  to  be  especially  strong 
in  childhood.  We  need  to  bear  in  mind,  however,  that 
it  becomes  capable  of  more  discriminating  action  as  the 
person  becomes  more  enlightened.  It  is  possible  to 
make  our  physical  sense  organs  more  responsive  to  stim- 
ulation, and,  by  this  means,  to  develop  the  power  of 
perception.  But  whoever  makes  this  the  aim  in  his 
culture  of  perception,  works  simply  upon  the  surface  of 
the  matter  and  does  not  reach  down  to  the  hidden 
depths  of  the  problem.  The  true  culture  of  perception 
can  be  accomplished  only  by  adding  to  this  refinement 
of  the  organs  a  mind  alive  to  many  and  varied  interests. 
This  can  be  done  by  storing  it  with  a  fund  of  knowledge 
upon  a  variety  of  subjects.  It  was  once  considered  true 
that  strength  of  perception  and  an  enlarged  power  of 
discriminating  thought  could  not  exist  together ;  that 
strength  of  perception  had  to  be  acquired  at  the  sacri- 
fice of  wide  learning.  In  support  of  this  view  it  was 
customary  to  refer  to  the  perception  of  savages,  which 
was  declared  to  be  so  much  keener  than  that  of  highly 
enlightened  men.  This  fancied  superiority  of  savages 
need  no  longer  be  taken  seriously.  It  all  depends  upon 
the  environment  in  which  they  are  asked  to  exercise 
their  powers.  Since  we  have  learned  that  men  are 
enabled  to  perceive  things  better  by  virtue  of  their 


26  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

greater  knowledge  of  what  to  look  for  in  things,  and 
that  their  knowledge  of  what  to  look  for  is  determined 
in  large  part  by  their  general  information,  we  are 
prepared  to  assert  that,  at  the  foundation  of  a  wise  and 
discriminating  perceptive  power,  there  must  be  a  full 
mind. 

It  is  helpful  for  the  teacher  to  distinguish  between 
original  and  acquired,  or  transferred,  perceptions.  Orig- 
inal perception  is  perception  of  a  quality  by  means  of 
the  sense  which  was  evidently  designed  to  give  us  the 
knowledge  of  that  quality ;  as,  color  through  sight, 
sound  through  hearing,  etc.  Transferred  perception  is 
perception  by  means  of  one  sense  of  a  quality  which 
was  evidently  designed  to  affect  a  different  sense ;  as, 
telling  the  temperature  or  hardness  of  a  thing  by  look- 
ing at  it,  telling  the  quantity  of  liquid  in  a  closed  vessel 
by  striking  it,  etc.  Now  these  transferred  perceptions 
are  of  very  great  importance  to  the  learner,  as  they 
enable  him  to  save  much  time  and  effort.  He  can  fre- 
quently use  his  sight  or  his  hearing,  which  operate 
through  great  distances,  instead  of  his  sense  of  touch, 
which  would  require  bodily  movement  and  to  which 
many  things  would  be  inaccessible.  But  whenever  doubt 
arises  as  to  the  correctness  of  the  deliverances  of  our 
senses,  we  can  test  the  matter  only  by  an  appeal  to  the 
sense  originally  designed  to  give  us  the  knowledge  in 
question.  The  entire  science  of  perspective  is  based 
upon  an  optical  illusion,  —  making  things  on  a  flat  sur- 
face look  as  if  they  had  the  third  dimension.  All  this 
seeming  vanishes  upon  applying  to  it  the  sense  of  touch. 

Some  advantage  will  come  to  a  teacher  from  knowing 


PERCEPTION.  27 

that  when  several  senses  are  used  conjointly,  as  is  usual 
in  life,  they  reveal  to  us  things  which  we  could  not  rec- 
ognize if  approached  through  one  of  the  senses  alone. 
This  is  true  to  a  certain  extent  of  any  familiar  combina- 
tion of  the  senses,  but  may  easily  be  proved  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  :  Take  very  familiar  liquids,  —  tea,  coffee, 
water,  vanilla,  orange,  chocolate,  —  and  with  the  nose 
held  shut  and  the  eyes  closed,  taste  them  and  find  how 
many  you  know.  The  person  being  tested  should  have 
the  things  given  to  him  by  another,  so  he  will  not  know 
beforehand  what  he  is  to  taste. 

Since  the  higher  forms  of  thought  require  material  to 
think  about  and  perception  furnishes  this  material,  it 
should  be  cultivated  early  in  life.  Every  faculty  is 
capable  of  its  best  cultivation  during  the  time  of  its 
predominant  activity.  The  following  directions  will  aid 
in  cultivating  perception  :  — 

1.  Require  pupils  to  observe  objects  and  then  to  mold, 
draw,  or  describe  them.     These   exercises  will  correct 
errors  in  perception  and  force  to  greater  attention  in  it. 
When  pupils  are  describing  the  things  they  are  perceiv- 
ing or  have  perceived,  make  them  discriminate  carefully 
between  what  they  perceive  and  what  they  think  about 
what  they  have  perceived. 

2.  When  some  skill  has  been  attained  in  the  drawing 
and  molding,  have  these  often  done  from  memory. 

3.  Give  exercises  in  map  drawing,  having  maps  drawn 
frequently  from  memory. 

4.  Drill  upon  color  discriminations  in  order  to  correct 
color  ignorance.     Do  the  same  with  geometrical  forms. 
Do  not  confine  this  to  the  pure  type  forms,  but  exercise 


28  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

pupils  in  perceiving  these  forms  as  they  are  approximately 
embodied  in  objects,  —  the  sphere  in  the  apple,  the 
orange,  etc.;  the  cylinder  in  the  jar,  the  pipe,  etc. 

5 .  Drill  in  vocal  music,  attending  to  both  tone  discrim- 
inations and  sight  reading. 

6.  Give    exercises    in    elementary   sounds,   emphasis, 
inflection,  etc. 

7.  Remember    that    some   people    learn   more   easily 
through  the  eye ;  others,  through  the  ear.     They  may 
not  remember  best  what  they  learn  through  the^  sense 
that  takes  it  easiest.     Frequently  exercise  the  hearing 
of  the  eye-minded  child  and  the  sight  of  the  ear-minded 
child.     This  will  give  strength  to  the  weaker  part  in 
each. 

8.  Strive  first  for  great  accuracy  in  perception ;  then 
aim  at  rapidity.     Only  intense  attention  to  the  matter 
in  hand,  coupled  with  an  attempt  to  force  rapid  percep- 
tion, will  accomplish  this  latter  end. 

9.  Keep  constantly  on  the  lookout  for  sense  defects 
in  your  pupils,  —  short-sightedness,  color-blindness,  deaf- 
ness, etc.     In  all  cases  needing  .it,  bring  the  matter  to 
the   attention   of    parents,  and    urge   the    necessity  of 
medical  aid. 

i  o.   Guard  the  conditions  of  perception  scrupulously, — 
the  light,  the  print,  the  pupil's  position,  his  health,  etc. 


MEMORY.  29 


CHAPTER  IV. 
MEMORY. 

IT  will  suffice  for  our  present  purpose  to  use  the  term 
"  memory  "  in  the  current  sense  as  embracing  the  ele- 
ments of  retention,  reproduction,  and  recognition,  though 
for  the  sake  of  clearness,  these  terms  will  need  some 
explanation. 

By  retention  is  not  meant  holding  in  permanent  form 
the  ideas  that  have  been  acquired.  Ideas  are  not  dis- 
tinct entities  that  exist  apart  from  consciousness,  to  be 
put  into  it  and  taken  out  of  it  at  pleasure.  Apart  from 
consciousness  ideas  do  not  exist.  It  would  be  just  as 
futile  to  ask  where  the  electric  light  is  when  the  switch 
is  turned  as  to  ask  where  the  idea  is  when  it  is  out  of 
consciousness.  When  it  is  not  in  consciousness  it  is  not 
in  existence.  But  if  ideas  are  not  thus  retained  as  per- 
manent things,  effects  are,  and  this  is  the  important  truth 
for  us  to  learn  in  this  connection.  Each  mental  activity, 
which  is  the  cause  of  an  idea,  leaves  its  effects  upon 
the  organism,  and  these  effects  are  what  we  retain. 
Since  these  effects  are  retained,  they  constitute  ten- 
dencies to  repeat  or  reproduce  the  acts  which  made 
them.  As  these  mental  acts  are  repeated  we  get  the 
idea  again,  now  as  a  reproduced  idea,  and  we  have  within 
us  the  capacity  to  know  this  reproduced  idea  as  a  former 
possession,  an  old  acquaintance  —  we  recognize  it.  This 
last  is  the  especial  function  of  memory ;  retention  and 


3O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

reproduction  are  only  necessary  preconditions.  To  re- 
member is  to  recognize  any  kind  of  revived  past  mental 
experience.  We  may  remember  not  only  the  things 
that  have  been  perceived,  but  also  any  kind  of  former 
mental  experience,  such  as  thoughts,  feelings,  or  acts 
of  will. 

Every  mental  act  —  whatever  we  perceive,  imagine, 
think,  feel,  etc.  —  leaves  a  permanent  impress  upon  us. 
Nothing  is  ever  totally  erased  from  our  lives.  We  are 
different  after  each  mental  act  from  what  we  would 
have  been  if  the  act  had  never  been  performed.  Each 
day's  experience  makes  us  better  or  worse  than  it  found 
us.  Not  all  of  these  things  are  remembered,  but  the 
effects  of  them  all  are  retained.  Many  of  these  experi- 
ences are  forgotten,  but  the  consequences  they  have 
worked  in  us  are  not  lost.  To  forget  is  simply  to  be 
unable  to  reproduce  and  marshal  at  pleasure.  Forget- 
fulness  is  no  sign  of  erasure,  but  only  of  an  inability  to 
command  and  use  what  has  been  impressed  upon  us. 
Frequently  we  find  that  things  long  since  forgotten 
come  rushing  into  consciousness  after  we  have  given  up 
all  attempt  to  recall  them,  and,  even  if  they  never  reap- 
peared as  facts,  their  failure  to  reappear  would  be  no 
sign  of  erasure.  In  support  of  the  claim  that  no  im- 
pression made  upon  a  human  soul  is  ever  erased,  though 
it  may  be,  either  temporarily  or  permanently,  forgotten, 
it  must  suffice  to  mention  only  one  instance,  the  classical 
case  of  the  German  serving  girl.  When  she  was  young 
she  lived  in  the  family  of  a  clergyman  who  was  accus- 
tomed to  read  and  recite  passages  from  Greek  and 
Hebrew  authors  as  he  walked  up  and  down  the  hall  ad- 


MEMORY.  3 1 

joining  the  room  in  which  she  worked.  She  constantly 
overheard  the  sounds  he  made  in  reading,  though  she 
understood  nothing  of  what  was  read.  Since  it  was 
meaningless  to  her  she  made  no  attempt  to  retain  it,  and 
of  course,  she  immediately  forgot  it.  Years  afterward, 
in  the  delirium  caused  by  a  fever,  she  repeated  in  her 
ravings  page  after  page  of  this  Greek  and  Hebrew  with 
literal  exactness.  The  impressions  were  permanent  even 
when  there  were  no  ideas  accompanying  them. 

Since  that  which  is  impressed  upon  a  life  has  such  per- 
manence of  effect,  it  behooves  us  to  select  with  care 
that  which  shall  be  allowed  to  affect  our  pupils.  Every 
error  is,  from  this  point  of  view,  very  costly.  Fortu- 
nate are  the  children  presided  over  by  a  teacher  who 
has  taken  well  to  heart  the  truth  which  Horace  Mann 
so  well  expressed  in  the  following  words :  "  Education 
more  than  anything  else  demands  not  only  a  scientific 
acquaintance  with  mental  laws,  but  the  nicest  art  in  the 
detail  and  application  of  means  for  its  successful  prose- 
cution, because  influences,  imperceptible  in  childhood, 
work  out  more  and  more  broadly  into  beauty  or  de- 
formity in  after  life.  No  unskillful  hand  should  ever 
play  upon  a  harp  when  the  tones  are  left  forever  in  the 
strings." 

For  purposes  of  teaching  we  must  distinguish  clearly 
between  the  mechanical  and  the  rational  memory.  The 
mechanical  memory  is  that  form  of  memory  which  must 
be  appealed  to  in  the  study  of  all  items  in  the  midst 
of  which  clear  thought  relations  cannot  be  discovered. 
The  spelling  of  words,  the  names  of  persons,  the  times 
and  details  of  events,  etc.,  are  examples,  Very  close 


32  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

attention  in  the  process  of  acquisition,  so  as  to  produce 
as  deep  an  impression  as  possible,  must  be  largely  relied 
upon  in  learning  to  remember  such  items.  Joined  to 
this  and  equally  important  with  it  is  the  element  of  fre- 
quent repetition.  The  only  part  association  can  play 
here  is  in  arbitrarily  grouping  things  on  the  basis  of  cer- 
tain accidental  properties. 

The  rational  memory  is  that  form  of  memory  which 
we  employ  upon  truth  in  the  midst  of  whose  items  clear 
thought  relations  are  discernible.  As  examples  we  may 
mention  historic  items  seen  to  be  related  as  cause  and 
effect,  scientific  facts  which  are  grasped  as  special  appli- 
cations of  some  comprehensive  principle,  mathematical 
solutions  whose  successive  steps  need  not  be  arbitrarily 
held,  but  may  be  thought.  In  cultivating  this  rational 
memory  we  must  learn  to  add  to  the  close  attention  and 
the  repetition  so  serviceable  in  the  mechanical  memory 
the  clearly  formed  rational  association  of  the  items  to 
be  remembered.  A  strong  rational  memory  is  one  of 
the  signs  of  a  developed  mind,  but  it  costs  something 
to  get  it.  Besides  the  effort  and  the  time  which  it 
costs,  we  secure  it  at  the  expense  of  the  mechanical 
memory  —  the  study  of  relations  tends  to  weaken  the 
memory  of  isolated  data ;  the  search  for  laws  tends  to 
produce  in  us  a  neglect  for  special  instances ;  reducing 
everything  to  terms  of  thought  relations  tends  to  weaken 
our  command  of  facts,  which  should  be  ever  ready  at 
hand.  As  a  result  of  too  exclusive  attention  to  the 
rational  type  of  memory,  which  is  readily  acknowledged 
to  be  the  higher  type,  we  have  persons  with  scarcely 
any  knowledge  of  dates,  with  a  very  embarrassing  in- 


MEMORY.  33 

ability  to  remember  names,  and  with  such  proneness  to 
forget,  that  literal  quotation  is  a  practical  impossibility. 
While  a  strong  rational  memory  is  a  sign  of  a  developed 
mind  and  should  be  strenuously  cultivated,  we  must  not 
forget  that  life  requires  of  us  a  ready  mechanical  mem- 
ory, and  we  should  therefore  strive  to  keep  it  strong 
enough  to  meet  the  demands  of  a  busy  world.  Each 
variety  of  the  mechanical  memory  —  that  for  places, 
dates,  names,  forms,  colors,  etc.  —  can  be  strengthened 
only  by  being  systematically  exercised  within  its  own 
domain. 

In  order  that  the  memory  shall  be  counted  excellent, 
the  individual  must  show  readiness  in  acquisition,  tenac- 
ity in  retention,  and  promptness  in  reproduction  and 
recognition.  Acquisition  involves  two  elements,  com- 
prehending and  fixing  in  mind  ;  it  is  to  the  latter  that 
we  refer  above.  If  the  individual  requires  manifold 
repetitions  to  fix  in  mind  what  another  grasps  with  ease, 
it  is  because  his  memory  lacks  this  first  element  of 
excellence.  The  surest  way  to  improve  at  this  point  is 
by  giving  undivided  and  intense  attention  to  that  which 
is  being  committed  to  memory.  This  makes  study  a 
serious  matter  and  not  a  pastime,  but  it  pays  large 
returns  for  the  effort.  Again,  the  memory  may  retain 
with  excellence  only  momentarily.  This  is  a  great 
weakness  and  is  usually  due  to  the  fact  that  the  thing 
learned  has  not  been  often  enough  repeated  to  be  made 
permanent,  but  has  been  dismissed  as  soon  as  an  incom- 
plete insight  into  it  has  been  gained.  Frequency  of 
thoughtful  repetition  is  the  remedy.  By  frequency  of 
repetition  is  meant  more  than  going  over  a  thing  a  given 


34  SYSTEMATIC     METHODOLOGY. 

number  of  times  ;  it  means  repeating  the  matter  a  given 
number  of  times  within  a  specific  time. 

There  are  two  extremes  in  study  which  violate  this 
thought.  The  first  consists  in  repeating  a  countless 
number  of  times  that  which  has  been  gone  over  often 
enough  for  one  effort ;  it  does  not  even  momentarily 
turn  aside  from  the  item  that  is  being  impressed,  and 
therefore  it  gives  the  mind  no  chance  to  test  the  effects 
of  its  reiterations.  The  remedy  for  this  error  is  to  be 
found  in  occasionally  stopping  the  repetition  of  the 
matter  in  question  and  then,  after  a  brief  interval  of 
rest,  endeavoring  to  repeat  it  without  further  reference 
to  the  source  from  which  it  is  being  learned.  This 
interval  should  be  gradually  extended  until  at  length  the 
repetition  may  not  take  place  for  some  days.  In  com- 
mitting to  memory  a  bit  of  literature,  students  some- 
times read  it  over  and  over  again,  and  for  a  long  time 
they  do  not  interrupt  this  constant  reading  enough  to 
give  the  memory  a  chance  to  be  tested.  If  they  would 
read  it  once  or  twice  carefully,  then  endeavor  to  repeat 
without  the  book  as  much  of  it  as  possible,  and,  when 
they  reach  their  limit,  read  again  in  order  to  get  a  little 
more,  they  would  secure  much  better  results.  When 
the  entire  selection  has  been  committed,  it  should  be 
repeated  at  intervals  until  it  becomes  a  very  intimate 
part  of  the  learner's  being ;  then  it  will  have  a  degree 
of  permanence  that  is  profitable. 

The  second  extreme  is  found  in  that  plan  of  study 
which  dismisses  a  thing  from  attention  as  soon  as  it  is 
once  well  acquired.  So  much  time  is  permitted  to  elapse 
before  it  is  reviewed  that,  when  it  is  at  last  approached, 


MEMORY.  35 

it  is  like  coming  upon  that  which  is  almost  entirely  new. 
All  the  old  traces  of  it  have  been  blurred,  and  before 
they  can  be  deepened  they  must  be  marked  out  anew. 
It  is  as  if  builders  should  construct  part  of  a  building 
and  then  cease  operations  till  this  had  largely  fallen 
down  and  been  covered  with  debris  ;  at  last  they  resume 
work,  but  it  is  never  at  the  place  where  they  left  it. 
How  much  labor  would  be  saved  if  operations  were  sys- 
tematically continued  until  the  structure  is  completed ! 
So  it  is  with  our  mental  labor  in  committing  things  to 
memory.  We  are  no  longer  compelled  to  re-learn  the 
multiplication  table  and  the  much-used  maxims  of  our 
youth ;  they  were  repeated  at  suitable  intervals  fre- 
quently enough  to  become  finished  and  fixed.  Thus  it 
might  be  with  other  items  deemed  worthy  of  being  com- 
mitted to  memory.  If  they  are  kept  up  at  intervals 
until  they  are  well  fixed  in  mind,  the  learner  will  be 
saved  from  the  grave  consequences  of  committing 
things  merely  for  passing  occasions. 

The  last  item  of  excellence  in  the  memory  is  prompt- 
ness in  reproduction  and  recognition.  This  can  be  se- 
cured only  by  persistent  exercise.  It  is  not  enough  to 
impress  the  truth  upon  the  mind  ;  it  must  be  reproduced 
frequently.  Persons  often  complain  of  knowing  things 
but  not  being  able  to  think  of  them  at  the  time.  They 
cannot  recall  at  pleasure  what  they  are  sure  they  will 
think  of  again  if  they  only  give  themselves  time  enough. 
This  defect  may  be  helped  by  habituating  one's  self  to 
reproduce  items  of  knowledge  with  promptness  and 
vigor.  This  will  demand  close  attention  and  an  effort 
to  increase  one's  rate  of  mental  activity  along  this  line. 


36  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  frequent  use  of  that  which 
is  known  ;  and  oral  declamation  is  one  of  the  most  help- 
ful aids  in  the  cultivation  of  a  strong  and  serviceable 
memory. 

A  very  fruitful  subject  of  inquiry  for  the  student  of 
memory  culture  to  ask  is,  What  things  shall  be  com- 
mitted to  memory  verbatim  and  what  shall  have  only  the 
truth  impressed  ?  As  a  working  answer  to  this  the  fol- 
lowing is  offered  :  Only  that  should  be  committed  to 
memory  verbatim  whose  language  has  some  peculiar 
merit  of  its  own.  Selections  in  literature  should  be 
learned  verbatim  because  of  the  beauty  or  force  in  the 
diction ;  principles  in  mathematics,  because  of  exact- 
ness ;  maxims,  because  of  conciseness  and  point,  etc. 
Most  of  the  text  of  histories,  reading  books,  newspapers, 
etc.,  should  not  be  committed  to  memory  verbatim,  because 
it  does  not  excel  in  force,  beauty,  exactness,  or  any  other 
desirable  quality.  The  pupil  might  give  the  thought  as 
well  in  his  own  language,  and  to  memorize  the  language 
of  the  author  would  add  nothing  of  merit  to  the  learner's 
vocabulary.  Evidently  the  recommendation  to  commit  a 
thing  to  memory  verbatim  does  not  contain  a  recom- 
mendation either  for  or  against  committing  to  memory 
what  is  not  understood  ;  neither  does  it  advise  employ- 
ing the  memory  upon  the  language  of  that  which  should 
be  attacked  by  the  reason,  as  if  memory  could  be  made 
a  substitute  for  rational  thought.  Doubtless  it  is  wise 
to  commit  to  memory  during  the  plastic  period  of  youth 
many  gems  that  are  not  fully  comprehended,  but  this  is 
no  reason  for  the  mistaken  practice  of  committing  to 
memory  without  understanding  that  which  might  be 


MEMORY.  37 

understood.  There  is  no  pedagogical  ground  for  taxing 
the  mind  with  senseless  verbiage,  when  it  is  within  the 
learner's  ability  to  make  intelligible  the  language  he  is 
asked  to  acquire.  There  is  just  as  little  ground  for  ad- 
vising a  child  never  to  commit  to  memory  anything  he 
does  not  fully  comprehend. 


Direct  Aids  to  the  Cultivation  of  Memory. 

1.  Give  undisturbed  and  vigorous  attention    to   that 
which  is  being  acquired. 

2.  Learn  a  thing  through  several  avenues  when  pos- 
sible.    Words  in  spelling  may  be  looked  at,  said  aloud, 
and  written.     The  use  of   these  avenues  together  will 
generally  be  found  more  profitable  than  the  same  amount 
of  time  expended  upon  any  one  of  them  alone. 

3.  Cultivate  any  sense  so  that  it  can  perceive  finer 
shades  of  difference,  and  you  indirectly  strengthen  the 
memory  for  its  products. 

4.  Improve  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  body  and  you 
lay  the  physical  foundation  for  an  improved  memory. 

5.  No  attempt  should  be  made  to  commit  things  to 
memory  when  the  learner  is  physically  exhausted.     The 
first  of  the  mental  faculties  to  be  affected  disastrously 
by  wearying  the  body  is  the  memory. 

6.  Repeat  at  reasonable  intervals  whatever  has  been 
thought  worth  committing  to  memory,  until  it  gets  so 
fully  impressed  as  to  be  ready  upon  call. 

7.  Teach  children  how  to  commit  a  thing  to  memory 
by  searching  for  its  thought  elements,  or  picture  series, 


38  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

or  catch  words,  or  whatever  it  contains  that    may  be 
taken  as  an  aid  to  an  intelligent  fixing  of  the  words. 

8.  Teach  pupils  to  search  for  thought  elements  that 
will  enable  them  to  associate  what  is  being  learned  with 
what  is  already  well  known. 

9.  Frequently  have  pupils   reproduce  things   in   the 
way  in  which  they  were  meant  to  be  of  service  when 
they  were  committed.     If  a  poem  has  been  committed 
for  oral   recitation,  it  is  not   enough   to   have    it   often 
thought  over ;  it  should  often  be  recited  aloud.     Pupils 
can  frequently  recite  correctly  in  regular  order  the  entire 
multiplication  table  and  yet  not  give  the  correct  products 
when  these   are   called  for  promiscuously  in  problems. 
Such  irregular  drill  should  be  frequent,  for  it  is  in  this 
way  that  multiplication  is  valuable. 

10.  Discourage  the  practice  of  committing  a  thing  to 
memory  by  carrying  in  mind  a  picture  of  how  it  looks 
upon  the  page.     All  such  arbitrary  expedients  have  but 
a  temporary  value,  and  learning  things  for  only  tempo- 
rary ends  is  destructive  to  the  permanence  of  memory. 
Do  not  countenance  learning  things  merely  for  the  next 
recitation  ;  habitual  review,  in  the  recitation,  of  related 
past  knowledge  will  do  much  to  correct  this  error  in  the 
learner. 


IMAGINATION.  39 


CHAPTER   V. 
IMAGINATION. 

IT  is  a  popular  error  to  think  of  the  imagination  as  a 
faculty  serviceable  only  to  the  sentimental,  or  at  best  to 
the  writer  of  fiction  or  poetry,  but  having  little  if  any 
real  worth  to  the  serious  student  of  sober  matters  of 
fact.  This  mistaken  conception  has  been  very  far- 
reaching  in  its  baneful  effects,  and  has  led  to  a  serious 
neglect,  on  the  part  of  teachers,  of  this  very  important 
faculty.  Instead  of  being  a  capacity  valuable  only  as  a 
means  of  diversion,  as  some  think,  it  is  the  power  re- 
quired in  all  mental  picturing  that  involves  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  experiences  of  the  past.  The  memory  as  a 
representative  faculty  can  merely  reproduce  individual 
experiences  as  they  have  been  met ;  imagination  takes 
these  experiences  as  its  material  and  modifies  them  to 
meet  the  purposes  in  view.  The  memory  is  a  reproduc- 
tive faculty  —  it  is  in  no  direct  sense  a  faculty  of  acqui- 
sition, but  rather  of  conservation  ;  the  imagination  is  a 
faculty  of  production,  of  actual  creation  in  so  far  as  that 
term  can  have  any  true  meaning  in  reference  to  the  work 
of  finite  beings.  In  all  acts  of  original  illustration  either 
of  philosophical,  scientific,  or  practical  truth  ;  in  all 
mechanical  invention,  original  composition,  or  decoration  ; 
in  the  performance  of  intelligent  manual  labor,  or  the 
production  of  an  ideal  of  human  character,  —  in  a  word, 
in  all  mental  advancement  held  within  the  bounds  of  in- 


4O  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

dividual  notions  and  not  directly  supplied  by  the  senses, 
the  imagination  is  involved  as  the  dominant  faculty. 

The  closeness  with  which  activity  of  the  imagination 
is  bound  up  with  that  of  the  other  mental  faculties  will 
best  be  seen  by  calling  attention  to  certain  limitations 
placed  upon  it.  Since  the  imagination  must  use  as  its 
material  the  data  furnished  by  other  forms  of  mental 
activity,  it  is  evident  that  the  scope  of  our  mental  experi- 
ences will  serve  to  fix  a  limit  upon  the  scope  of  our  pos- 
sible imagining.  If  a  child's  experiences  have  been 
greatly  circumscribed  in  extent  and  variety,  he  comes 
to  the  task  of  imagining  very  poorly  equipped  ;  it  is  a 
modern  version  of  attempting  to  "  make  bricks  without 
straw."  In  this  is  foreshadowed  one  of  the  indirect 
means  of  cultivating  the  imagination.  Again,  it  is  ob- 
served that  children  of  all  grades  of  maturity  display 
marked  differences  in  their  ability  to  make  original  con- 
structions, even  when  they  are  furnished  with  duplicate 
lots  of  material.  One  child  seems  unable  to  think  of 
anything  else  to  do  than  merely  to  set  things  up  and 
throw  them  down  ;  another  is  rich  in  expedients  for 
"  making  things."  One  must  wait  for  others  to  suggest 
lines  of  employment  or  play ;  another  is  full  of  schemes 
and  is  passing  from  one  thing  to  another  with  prompt- 
ness and  precision.  These  differences  are  due  primarily 
to  differences  in  the  power  of  imagination ;  and  this 
variation  arises  from  the  fact  that  one  is  unable  and 
the  other  abundantly  able  to  detect  relations  among 
things  or  ideas.  Now  this  power  to  detect  relations  is 
thought ;  hence  it  is  clearly  seen  that  another  limit 
placed  upon  our  possible  imagining  is  fixed  by  our  power 
of  thought. 


IMAGINATION.  4! 

This  leads  to  the  remark  that  not  all  the  picture- 
making  tendency  of  the  mind,  not  all  day-dreaming  and 
fanciful  scheming  are  truly  imaginative.  The  imagina- 
tion creates  by  laws  rather  closely  connected  with 
reason  ;  fancy  is  governed  by  associations  that  are  more 
arbitrary  and  whimsical.  The  imagination,  though  moved 
by  strong  emotion,  aims  at  results  of  a  definite  char- 
acter ;  fancy  can  scarcely  be  said  to  aim  at  all,  but 
rather  simply  to  catch  at  the  unexpected,  the  startling, 
the  brilliant.  True  imagination,  then,  is  the  picture- 
making  faculty  operating  under  the  guidance  of  reason. 
Whatever  strengthens  the  power  of  thought,  therefore, 
and  teaches  it  to  operate  in  the  concrete,  is  of  service  in 
the  culture  of  the  imagination. 

Kinds  of  Imagination. 

For  purposes  of  pedagogy  the  imagination  is  most 
profitably  divided  into  two  kinds,  —  the  receptive  imagi- 
nation and  the  creative  imagination.  As  is  indicated 
above,  the  imagination  is  the  picture-making  faculty 
under  the  guidance  of  reason,  but  this  may  be  the 
reason  of  the  person  himself  or  that  of  another. 

If  the  mental  imagery  is  subject  to  the  dictation  of 
another,  as  in  reading  a  book  or  listening  to  a  lecture, 
the  imagination  is  receptive. 

If  the  mental  imagery  is  subject  to  the  guidance  of 
the  person's  own  unaided  reason,  as  in  writing  a  book  or 
inventing  a  machine,  the  imagination  is  creative. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  this  distinction  is  not  one 
that  in  any  way  has  reference  to  the  fund  of  ideas  pro- 


42  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

vided  for  the  service  of  the  imagination,  but  merely  to 
the  conditions  under  which  the  person  acts  in  his  use 
of  such  ideas.  In  the  receptive  imagination,  the  person 
has  on  hand  a  certain  fund  of  data  ;  this  is  reproduced 
and  then  the  imagination  builds  it  into  new  products. 
But  all  this  is  subject  step  by  step  to  the  dictation  of 
another  mind,  and  presumably  one  which  in  that  line 
is  more  experienced  In  the  creative  imagination  the 
person  has  on  hand  the  same  fund  of  data ;  this  is 
reproduced  as  before  ;  and  then  the  imagination  builds  it 
into  new  products.  But  now  the  choice  of  items,  the 
arrangement  of  the  several  parts,  and  even  the  ideal 
which  is  to  be  actualized,  are  all  left,  to  the  guidance  of 
the  person's  own  thought.  The  inference  is  plain  from 
this  that  the  receptive  type  of  imagination  should  be 
appealed  to  and  be  cultivated  before  the  creative  type, 
both  because  it  is  easier  for  the  child  and  because  he 
will  thus  get  at  the  outset  the  advantages  of  wisdom 
and  experience  as  guides  to  the  formation  of  correct 
habits  of  imagination,  before  he  is  thrown  upon  his  own 
unaided  resources  in  this  matter.  This  relative  order 
should  be  observed,  whether  the  imagination  exercised  is 
of  the  artistic,  or  the  scientific,  or  the  practical  kind. 

Objection  is  sometimes  urged  to  the  use  of  the  term 
"  creative  "  in  reference  to  the  human  imagination.  It  is 
stated  that  the  imagination  can  create  nothing  new ;  it 
can  at  best  only  take  old  materials  and  put  them  into 
new  relations.  All  the  elements  in  the  product  are  old, 
and  we  are  totally  incapable  of  making  anything  in 
imagination  which  was  not  furnished  in  its  elements  by 
the  senses.  If  by  creation  we  meant  bringing  into 


IMAGINATION.  43 

being,  then  the  criticism  would  be  a  valid  one ;  but 
when  it  means  producing  that  which  in  its  present  form 
did  not  previously  exist,  the  objection  to  the  word  seems 
unfounded.  We  speak  of  persons  making  new  houses, 
new  wagons,  new  art  designs,  or  new  clothing,  and  the 
expressions  go  unchallenged ;  and  yet  most  people  have 
doubtless  never  stopped  to  think  in  what  the  element  of 
newness  consists.  All  the  materials  in  a  new  house  — 
the  wood,  stone,  iron,  slate,  etc.  —  are  old.  What  is  it, 
then,  that  makes  it  a  new  house  ?  We  distinguish 
between  new  clothing  and  "  made-over "  clothing,  and 
yet  all  the  materials  in  the  new  garments  may  be  as  old 
as  those  in  the  others.  What,  then,  is  the  ground  for 
the  distinction ;  and  just  what  do  we  mean  by  a  new  gar- 
ment ?  Every  material  product  of  man's  skill  is  made 
up  of  two  things,  —  material  elements  and  relations. 
The  material  elements  man  must  always  find  at  hand 
ready  for  his  use;  he  cannot  bring  any  of  them  into 
being.  The  relations,  or  arrangement  of  these  elements, 
he  furnishes.  And  these  new  relations  constitute  the 
only  element  of  newness  in  any  of  the  products  of 
man's  skill.  A  new  house,  then,  is  all  old,  except  the 
arrangement  of  the  materials  which  compose  it.  If 
these  materials  have  never  before  been  put  into  the 
relations  required  for  the  production  of  such  an  object 
as  is  before  us,  we  call  the  object  new ;  if  they  have 
been  in  such  relation  before,  we  call  the  product  a 
"  made-over "  one.  A  new  garment  differs  from  a 
made-over  one  only  in  this  :  the  materials  of  the  "  made- 
over  "  garment  have  been  used  in  garments  before, 
while  those  of  the  new  one  have  never  been  so  used. 


44  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

Now,  in  the  products  of  imagination  we  have  just  the 
same  amount  of  newness  that  we  have  in  material  prod- 
ucts,—  new  relations.  All  the  elements  (ideas)  which 
serve  as  the  data  of  imagination  are  old ;  the  arrange- 
ment alone  is  new,  and  these  new  relations  man  creates. 

Dangers  of  the  Imagination. 

The  imagination,  more  than  any  other  faculty  of  the 
human  mind,  is  liable  to  certain  dangers,  which  arise 
doubtless  from  the  fact  that  it  tends  to  act  spontane- 
ously, and  to  work  out  a  train  of  consequences  from  the 
impetus  of  a  simple  suggestion. 

I.  If  the  picture-making  tendency  is  developed  out  of 
proportion  to  the  judgment,  the  individual  is  liable  to 
become  visionary.  His  imaging  may  remain  under 
control  of  what  little  judgment  he  possesses,  but  the 
danger  is  that  he  will  enter  into  various  wild  and  reck- 
less schemes,  because  his  strong  imagination  prefigures 
results  which  he  fails  to  see  are  impracticable  and  there- 
fore useless.  The  remedy  for  such  a  state  as  this  is  to 
be  found  in  bringing  the  individual  into  vital  contact 
with  stern  matters  of  fact.  The  result  will  be  that 
these  will  give  him  a  fund  of  practical  information,  and 
develop  his  power  of  judging  in  a  world  of  realities. 

People  thus  ill  proportioned  are  often  spoken  of  as 
having  an  over-powerful  imagination.  This  seems,  how- 
ever, to  be  placing  emphasis  upon  the  wrong  term.  No 
person  was  ever  born  with  powers  too  great.  This  lack 
of  harmony  is  the  result,  not  so  much  of  excess  in 
the  picture-making  faculty  as  of  deficiency  in  the  judg- 


IMAGINATION.  45 

ment.  Due  proportion  may  be  secured  either  by  dimin- 
ishing, through  inactivity,  his  imaging  ability,  or  by 
increasing,  through  appropriate  action,  his  power  to 
judge.  No  thoughtful  teacher  will  ever  strive  to 
educate  through  repression,  when  proper  harmony  and 
greater  absolute  strength  can  be  secured  by  develop- 
ment. If  proper  harmony  cannot  safely  be  reached  by 
this  process  it  is  better  to  resort  to  repression  than  not 
to  secure  it ;  but  the  effort  at  development  of  the 
weaker  part  should  always  be  undertaken  in  preference, 
especially  when  neither  member  is  inherently  evil. 

2.  Because  the  imagination  acts  so  vigorously  in  obedi- 
ence to  the  promptings  of  strong  feeling,  it  is  in  danger 
of  becoming  seductive.  While  the  individual  is  reveling 
in  the  delights  of  imaginary  situations  there  is  develop- 
ing within  him  a  taste  for  such  highly  colored  experi- 
ences, and,  before  he  is  aware  of  it,  the  commonplaces 
of  a  world  of  reality  may  become  unbearable.  Stern 
duties  will  not  be  met,  and  imagining  one's  self  con- 
queror of  an  important  or  difficult  situation  will  take  the 
place  of  persevering  endeavor,  which  alone  can  overcome. 
Firmness  of  character  is  thus  in  danger  of  giving  away. 
Reliance  cannot  be  placed  in  such  an  individual  because 
he  confuses  the  imaginary  with  the  real.  In  little  chil- 
dren this  leads  to  many  forms  of  nursery  untruths. 
This  is  not  to  be  confused  with  deliberate  lying,  which  is 
intentional  deception  ;  but  placing  so  much  belief  in  the 
reality  of  our  mere  imagining  prepares  the  mind  for  the 
practice  of  falsehood.  It  at  first  renders  us  familiar  and 
contented  with  uncertain  data ;  soon  the  unreal  becomes 
more  of  a  joy  and  more  capable  of  bending  to  our  pur- 


46  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

poses  than  the  real ;  then  we  need  but  to  add  the  decep- 
tive intention  in  the  use  of  material  we  have  become 
accustomed  to  handle,  and  we  have  the  liar.  It  is  rather 
an  evolution  to  a  bad  end,  than  a  sudden  reversal  of 
character ;  and  right  in  that  lies  the  danger  of  imagina- 
tive activity  that  is  largely  prompted  by  unbridled  feel- 
ings. The  remedy  is  again  plain,  —  an  appeal  to  matters 
of  fact  ;  a  development  of  the  judgment  so  that  unrea- 
soning feeling  shall  cease  to  hold  sway ;  and  a  constant 
shaping  of  events  so  that  the  stern  demands  of  unre- 
lenting necessity  —  hunger,  thirst,  inconvenience,  etc.  - 
shall  fall  upon  him  who  is  seduced  by  the  unrealities  of 
a  world  of  mere  imagination. 

3.  The  third  great  danger  of  the  imagination  is  that 
it  is  likely  to  become  corrupting,  because  here  we  have  a 
power  as  responsive  to  evil  as  to  good.  It  was  stated 
above  that  the  imagination  tends  to  work  out  a  great 
train  of  consequences  from  a  simple  suggestion.  Now 
this  suggestion  may  come  either  from  our  contact  with 
a  fund  of  pure  and  elevating  truth,  or  from  association 
with  the  corrupting  influences  of  sight,  sound,  or  thought. 
It  is  evident  that  the  trend  of  our  imaginative  activity, 
thus  awakened,  will  be  determined  very  largely  by  ele- 
ments that  are  under  our  control,  —  the  fund  of  ideas 
already  acquired  ;  the  purpose  or  intention  of  the  person  ; 
the  habits  he  has  established,  and  the  strength  of  his 
will.  In  the  proper  direction  of  these  forces  lie  the 
preventive  or  corrective  measures  for  this  danger. 


IMAGINATION.  47 


Practical  Aids  Recommended. 

I .  Be  careful  of  the  perceptions  of  pupils.  It  matters 
greatly  what  children  see,  hear,  think,  or  do.  It  has 
been  pointed  out  elsewhere  that  the  effects  of  impres- 
sions made  upon  the  human  soul  are  permanent.  Here 
it  should  be  added  that  the  fund  of  ideas  received 
through  perception  will  furnish  the  data  for  imagination 
and  do  much  toward  determining  the  trend  of  imagina- 
tive activity.  Whether  a  child's  imaginings  shall  be 
healthful  or  hurtful  will  depend  largely  upon  the  moral 
purity  and  worthiness  of  that  which  he  is  called  upon  to 
listen  to  or  look  upon.  How  carefully  children  should 
be  shielded  from  the  moral  pollution  of  improper  pic- 
tures, of  street  loafers,  or  corner-store  loungers  will  be 
readily  determined  when  we  have  placed  the  value  we 
should  upon  a  child's  mental  and  moral  integrity.  And 
we  dare  not  forget  that  this  integrity  is  affected  for  all 
time  by  their  perceptions,  which  become  the  burden  of 
their  imaginings.  It  may  take  contact  with  but  a  little 
of  evil  to  fan  into  a  consuming  flame  the  imaginings  of 
a  child  who  might,  but  for  that  contact,  have  been  made 
almost  divine.  In  these  recommendations  it  is  not 
forgotten  that  some  one  must  face  evil  in  order  to  put 
it  down ;  but  that  person  should  be  one  whose  character 
is  established  beyond  question,  and  not  a  child.  In  the 
beginnings  of  childhood  it  sometimes  requires  but  a  very 
little  thing  to  start  a  train  of  circumstances  that  develop 
into  monstrous  consequences.  The  switch  that  moves 
the  railway  track  but  a  few  inches  sends  the  trains  to 


48  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

their  different  destinations,  often  many  miles  apart. 
A  wholesome  environment  to  furnish  a  child's  percep- 
tions will  almost  insure  safety  in  imaginative  growth. 

2.  In  so  far  as  it  is  possible,  keep  the  mind  actively 
and  pleasantly  engaged  with  that  which  is  worthy.     In- 
activity is  impossible,   and    activity  that    is    constantly 
opposed  to  one's  inclinations  is  impracticable.     We  must 
learn  to  make  the  proper  at  least  as  delightful  to  the 
child  as  the  improper.     His  indulgence  in  the  good  and 
enthusiasm  for  it  will  thus  become  matters  of  early  habit, 
and  this  is  a  powerful  safeguard  against   a   corrupting 
imagination. 

3.  Prevent  or  correct  every  exercise  of  a  brooding  or 
moody  tendency.     This  disposition,  which  is  not  common 
to  childhood,  can  be  corrected  by  seeking  out  pleasant 
companions,  enjoyable  books,  or  interesting  enterprises. 
Activity  is   a  characteristic   of   childhood   and   merely 
needs  guiding.     An  unthinking  constraint  laid  upon  a 
child  will  have  a  tendency  to  render  him  irritable,  un- 
healthy, speculative,  and  positively  vicious. 

4-  Urge  upon  pupils  the  wrong  of  evil  thinking,  and 
teach  them  that  purity  of  thought  is  even  more  deep-seated 
manliness  than  purity  of  action.  Our  actions  may  be 
controlled  as  a  matter  of  public  or  social  policy ;  if 
our  thoughts  are  controlled  it  is  likely  to  be  from  the 
motive  of  inherent  worth.  Actions  may  be  feigned ;  the 
thoughts  we  entertain  are  always  real.  This  distinction 
is  the  more  important  because  many  persons  who  will 
not  sin  openly  will  revel  in  the  vices  of  a  polluted  imag- 
ination. They  are  thus  destroying  the  very  foundation 
of  their  moral  character,  Improper  action  enables  others 


IMAGINATION.  49 

to  know  the  truth  and  to  render  help ;  improper  thought 
is  secret.  In  all  this,  reference  is  made  merely  to 
the  effects  upon  the  actor ;  it  is  not  intended  to  mini- 
mize the  consequences  of  action  upon  the  community. 
The  purpose  is  rather  to  emphasize  the  thought  of 
Robert  Browning  in  "  Saul  "  :  "  'T  is  not  what  man  docs 
which  exalts  him,  but  what  man  would  do. 

Directions  for  Cultivating  the  Imagination. 

1.  Keep  the  child  in   familiar   contact  with  facts  in 
nature,  art,  literature,  etc.     He  may  thus  secure  a  fund 
of  ideas  that  will  be  suitable  material  for  subsequent 
imagining. 

2.  Drill  the  child  frequently  in  recalling  his  fund  of 
information.     This  is  the  second  preparatory  step  to  the 
training  of  imagination. 

3.  Give  the  child  numerous  examples  of  true  imagin- 
ing to  serve  as  models  for  him  to  adopt.     These  may  be 
chosen  from  literature,  history,  art,  invention,  etc. 

4.  Furnish  numerous  opportunities  for  the  exercise  of 
his  receptive  imagination.     These  may  be  found  in  clay 
modeling,  paper  folding,  drawing,  etc.,  subject  to  dicta- 
tion ;    in  verbal   description   or  pictorial    illustration    of 
scenes  read  about  or  heard ;  in  the  visualizing  of  condi- 
tions in  arithmetic,  geography,  history,  etc.  —  in  a  word, 
in  every  scheme  that  will  afford  an  opportunity  for  the 
child  to  exercise  his  imagination  subject  to  the  direction 
of  another,  given  either  by  word  of  mouth  or  by  writing. 

5.  Now  the  child  is  prepared  for  the  final  step  in  the 
development  of  his  imagination,  —  creative  work.     This 

•  ; 
HE 


5O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

creative  activity  may  be  secured  through  composition 
(bits  of  fiction  in  prose  or  poetry  may  be  invented  and 
then  illustrated ;  pictures,  events,  or  scenes  in  the 
neighborhood,  natural  forces,  mythological  personages, 
etc.,  may  be  made  the  basis  of  original  short  stories)  ; 
designing  in  the  drawing  class  (the  designs  may  be  for 
wall-paper  or  oil-cloth  patterns,  etc.) ;  pictorial  illustra 
tion  of  selections  in  reading,  history,  geography,  etc.  ; 
inventional  work  with  compass  and  ruler. 


THOUGHT.  5 1 


CHAPTER   VI. 
THOUGHT. 

IF  we  accept  Froebel's  view  that  the  purpose  of  the 
school  is  the  development  of  principles  in  the  several 
subjects  rather  than  the  mere  impressing  of  isolated 
facts,  we  shall  doubtless  accept  the  view  that  the  culture 
of  thought  (which  is  the  power  that  grasps  principles) 
is  of  paramount  importance.  But,  in  order  to  know  just 
what  this  faculty  of  thought  is,  a  few  words  upon  its 
nature  will  be  needed. 

The  word  "thought "  has  been  used  in  varied  senses  to 
mean  the  reasoning  power  of  the  intellect,  all  the  acquis- 
itive faculties  of  the  intellect,  and  the  intellect,  or  the  mind. 
In  this  connection  we  use  it  to  mean  the  power  of  com- 
paring, assorting,  and  arranging  our  fund  of  ideas,  of 
thus  classifying  these  according  to  their  agreements  and 
differences,  and  of  comprehending  the  truths  revealed 
in  such  classifications.  It  is  this  power  that  enables 
man  to  profit  by  experiences,  to  infer  that  what  is  true 
in  a  given  case  is  likely  to  prove  true  in  similar  cases. 
It  enables  us  also  to  reap  the  benefits  of  the  successes 
or  failures  of  others,  —  to  copy  the  one  and  to  shun  the 
other.  It  is  thought  that  makes  possible  all  the  advances 
in  the  arts  and  sciences,  that  employs  nature's  forces  in 
the  service  of  man,  that  domesticates  the  wild  animals 
of  the  earth  and  makes  them  obey  man,  that  contrives 
to  baffle  disease  and  to  employ  all  the  developing  agents 


52  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

for  man's  advancement,  and  that  enables  man  to  escape 
error,  to  appropriate  truth,  and  thus  to  approach  the  divine. 

Thinking  is  commonly  treated  as  including  three  steps, 
or  stages  of  complexity,  —  conceiving,  judging,  and 
reasoning.  It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  one  of  these 
stages  is  employed  and  that,  after  its  work  is  finished, 
the  next  one  is  begun.  They  are  all  bound  up  within 
the  process  of  thought,  and  are  in  constant  interaction. 
When  we  think,  in  its  fullness,  we  can  analyze  the 
process  into  three  clearly  distinguishable  acts  and  their 
respective  products,  and  these  acts  we  call  conceiving, 
judging,  and  reasoning. 

All  that  is  said,  therefore,  in  the  chapter  upon  "  The 
Concept  "  may  be  taken  as  part  of  the  discussion  of  the 
nature  and  development  of  thought.  It  is  beyond  the 
purpose  of  a  work  like  this  to  discuss  in  detail  the  sub- 
jects of  judgment  and  reasoning.  For  such  a  discussion 
the  student  must  look  to  works  on  psychology  and  logic. 
The  only  thing  that  can  be  done  here  with  profit  is 
to  give  some  practical  guides  for  the  development  of 
thought,  which  will  apply  to  it  in  all  three  of  its  stages. 

One  distinction  it  seems  important  to  make  in  this 
connection.  It  is  the  distinction  between  inductive  and 
deductive  thinking  or  reasoning. 

Inductive  reasoning  is  a  process  of  inference  which  is 
based  on  experience  and  which  reaches  a  generalization 
that  applies  to  cases  beyond  experience. 

What  is  said  upon  the  subject  of  the  inductive  method 
of  teaching  may  be  considered  as  so  much  said  in  the 
discussion  of  inductive  thought,  for  to  teach  inductively 
is  but  to  supply  the  conditions  and  stimulate  to  the  activ- 


THOUGHT.  53 

ity  of  inductive  reasoning.     In  this  connection  we  need 
to  add  the  following  remarks  :  — 

Inductive  reasoning  is  a  process  of  inference ;  that  is, 
a  process  of  knowing  "  by  means,  or  on  the  ground,  of 
facts  or  evidence."  An  inferred  proposition  is  a  propo- 
sition which  is  seen  to  be  true,  because  of  its  relation  to 
some  other  previously  known  proposition.  Many  persons 
regard  as  inductions,  and  as  the  only  perfect  inductions, 
those  cases  in  which  we  examine  all  the  individuals  of  a 
class  and  then  make  a  summary  statement  concerning 
them.  Instead  of  forming  instances  of  perfect  induc- 
tions, these  cases  do  not  seem  to  be  inductions  at  all. 
They  are  rather  statements  of  exactly  the  same  truth, 
but  by  means  of  slightly  different  words.  We  examine 
each  of  the  twelve  months  of  the  year  and  then,  as  the 
outcome  of  our  investigation,  having  found  that  each 
one  has  in  it  less  than  thirty-five  days,  we  assert  that  no 
month  contains  thirty-five  days.  We  examine  all  the 
pupils  of  a  class,  and  then  assert  that  they. are  all  honest, 
or  that  none  of  them  are  ignorant  of  a  certain  subject. 
These  are  simply  abbreviated  forms  of  expression;  and, 
because  we  have  examined  all  the  possible  cases,  they 
are  summary  statements  of  our  findings  and  are  worth 
much.  The  mental  process  involved  in  such  a  per- 
formance is  very  different,  however,  from  the  mental 
process  in  an  act  of  inductive  inference.  In  this  latter 
it  is  necessary  that  we  discover  some  causal  connection 
between  the  items  revealed  in  our  experience  and  the 
class  of  things  to  which  the  few  individuals  under 
examination  belong.1 

1  $ee  Elements  of  Inductive  Logic,  Part  I,  by  Noah  K.  Davis. 


54  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

To  become  a  case  of  real  induction  our  inference  must 
apply  to  cases  beyond  our  experience.  It  must  be  a  gen- 
eralization. A  man  sees  a  wounded  bird  lying  upon  the 
ground  ;  he  endeavors  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  its  being 
there,  and,  after  due  consideration,  decides  that  a  hunter 
was  the  cause.  This  is  often  regarded  as  a  case  of  in- 
duction, because  our  first  act  is  an  observation  of  the 
wounded  bird ;  hence,  it  is  thought,  we  are  performing 
a  process  of  inference  from  experience.  In  truth  this 
is  a  case  of  deductive  reasoning,  in  which  our  attention 
is  first  directed  to  the  minor  premise.  And,  since  the 
major  premise  used  in  this  act  of  reasoning  is  not  cer- 
tain, but  doubtful,  the  conclusion  is  at  best  but  a  prob- 
ability. Perhaps  it  is  this  element  of  probability  which, 
more  than  anything  else,  serves  to  make  men  call  the 
process  one  of  induction,  because  the  inferences  reached 
by  induction  are  always  but  probable  at  best.  The 
probability  may  be  great  or  small,  but  the  fact  that 
exceptions  are  conceivable,  when  we  generalize  beyond 
experience,  renders  it  impossible  that  our  empirical  gen- 
eralizations should  be  absolutely  certain. 

Deductive  reasoning  is  a  process  of  inference  which 
starts  from  a  given  generalization  and  reaches  a  conclu- 
sion of  equal  or  less  generality.  Some  of  the  general- 
izations from  which  deductive  reasoning  starts  are  in- 
tuitively known.  Such  are  the  axioms  of  mathematics, 
the  primary  laws  of  thought  in  logic,  and  the  ideas  of 
being,  cause,  space,  and  time.  Others  are  inductively 
established.  Such  are  the  general  laws  of  physics, 
astronomy,  biology,  etc.,  —  the  generalizations  of  the 
natural  sciences  and  of  all  other  empirical  sciences.  All 


THOUGHT.  5  5 

demonstrative  reasoning,  as  in  algebra,  arithmetic,  and 
geometry,  whether  it  merely  establishes  rules  on  the 
basis  of  the  axioms,  or  solves  problems  on  the  basis  of 
the  rules,  is  deductive.  All  applications  of  laws,  or 
other  generalizations,  to  individual  instances  is  deductive. 
In  a  word,  all  mental  processes  which  pass  from  general- 
izations of  a  given  order  to  those  which  are  narrower,  or 
to  individuals,  are  deductive. 


Aids  to  the  Development  of  Thought. 

1.  Train    children    to    be    exact    in    their  perceptions. 
Since  thinking  is  a  process  of  mental  sorting  of  ideas,  it 
is  evident  that  its  exactness  will  be  determined  in  part 
by  the  accuracy  and  the  completeness  of  our  ideas  as 
furnished  by  perception  and  revived  in  memory. 

2.  Require  children   to  use  language  with  exactness. 
Language  is  both  an  index  to  thought  and  an  instrument 
of  thought.     To  require  children  to  say  exactly  what 
they  undertake  to  say  will  necessitate  Scareful  thinking ; 
this  will  result  in  developed  thought  power.     In  order 
that  the  greatest  possible  help  may  be  given  along  this 
line,  it  is  necessary  that  the  teacher  should  constantly 
present    correct   models   of    language.     This    does    not 
mean  in  the  language  class  alone,  but  in  every  class,  and 
out    of    class,    the    teacher's    thought    and    expression 
should  be  models  of  correctness.     Then,  whenever  the 
interruption  will  not  sacrifice  the  subject  in  hand,  correct 
language   and    correct    thought    should    be    unfailingly 
demanded  of  the  child.     Figurative  language  should  be 
used  very  sparingly  with  children,  until  after  they  have 


56  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

been  clearly  impressed  with  the  literal  meanings  of  the 
words  that  enter  into  the  figures  of  speech. 

3.  Deepen,  as  well  as  broaden,  the  child's  vocabulary. 
Ordinarily  attention  is  given  only  to  increasing  the  num- 
ber of  words  at  the  child's  command.     Such  a  broaden- 
ing of  his  vocabulary,  if  done  intelligently,  will  enlarge 
his  scope  of  ideas  and  improve  his  powers  of  expression. 
But  we  need  also  to  attend  to  increasing  the  clearness 
of  meaning  attached  to  the  words  he  uses,  as  well  as  to 
increasing  the  number  of  meanings  of  words  that  have 
more  than  one.     While  this  deepening  process  will  not 
seem  to  enlarge  the  child's  vocabulary,  it  will  increase 
his  fund  of  ideas  and  thus  render  both  his  thinking  and 
his  expression  more  exact. 

4.  In  the  "reasoning  studies"  (those  where  truths  are 
involved  rather  than  simply  facts)  let  most  of  the  teach- 
ing be  done  by  means  of  questions.     If  this  is  not  done, 
the  learner  will  often  endeavor  to  prepare  the  lesson  by 
merely  committing  to  memory  the  expressions  found  in 
it.     All  of  this  may  be   recited   correctly  without  the 
learner   becoming  aware  of   the   truths   expressed.     In 
very  truth  "  a  question  is  the  teacher's  instrument  for 
making  a  child   think."     In  order  that  the  reasoning 
subjects  may  furnish  to  the  learner  the  power  which 
they  are  capable  of  furnishing,  they  must  be  addressed 
to  his  understanding  and  not  merely  have  their  language 
addressed  to  his  memory.     In  order  that  we  may  avoid 
the  error  of  attempting  to  "  lead  by  questions  "  where 
leading  is  impossible,  it  is  necessary  that  we  fix  the 
limits   to    this    vital    teaching   process.     Any    arbitrary 
items,    such    as   a   name,    the   particular   words   of   an 


THOUGHT.  57 

author,  or  any  other  matter  of  fact,  must  simply  be  told. 
Whether  it  shall  be  told  through  the  book  or  in  the 
words  of  the  teacher,  circumstances  must  determine. 
Sometimes  analogies  are  plain  enough  for  a  child  to  get 
the  item  by  a  good  bold  guess  ;  but  such  a  practice 
should  be  discouraged,  because  he  will  not  then  know 
that  he  is  right  until  he  is  told  so,  and  the  practice  is 
not  worth  what  it  costs  in  effort,  time,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  bad  habits.  There  are  places  where  telling  is 
good  teaching. 

5.  In  the  processes  of  reasoning  insist  upon  every  step  in 
the  thought.     This  direction  is  especially  needed  in  those 
parts  of  subjects  that  have  become  mechanical  to  the 
teacher.     If,   through  great   familiarity,  they  have  be- 
come very  easy  to  the  teacher  there   is  danger  of  his 
thinking   them    correspondingly    easy    to    learners.     If 
through   constant   use  of  them   his  mind   has    become 
directed  to  their  art  side  rather  than   to  their  science 
side,  there  is  danger  of  his  forgetting  that  any  reason  is 
necessary.     This  is  why  it  often  occurs  that   brilliant 
scholars  are  very  poor  teachers.     In  solving  an  equation 
in  algebra  or  a  problem  in  arithmetic,  in  demonstrating 
a  proposition  in  geometry,  or  in  disposing  of  a  logical 
proposition  jn  grammar,  their  minds  work  so  rapidly  that 
they  express  to  the  class  only  an  occasional  step  in  the 
thought   process.     The  remedy   for  all   this   is    in    the 
teacher's  habituating  himself  to  ask  why  each  assertion 
is  true. 

6.  Have  constant  comparisons  entering  into  the  study 
of  all  subjects.     In  history,  men  and  movements  may  be 
compared  ;  in  geography,  places  ;  in  literature  and  gram- 


58  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

mar,  the  truth  of  related  sentences ;  in  arithmetic, 
problems ;  etc.  Take  the  four  typical  unconditional 
propositions  presented  in  deductive  logic  (A,  E,  I  ,O), 
and  compare  their  truth. 

A.  The  universal  affirmative  proposition  —  ^//met- 
als are  brittle. 

~      ~,  .          ,  ( No  metals  are  brittle. 

L.     The    universal    negative  \ 

\  All    metals    are    not 
proposition  —  I 

brittle. 

I.  The  particular  affirmative  proposition  —  Some 
metals  are  brittle. 

O.  The  particular  negative  proposition  —  Some  met- 
als are  not  brittle. 

Now,  if  A  is  true,  how  does  that  affect  the  truth  of 
the  others?  If  E  is  true?  I?  O?  Then  if  A  is 
false,  how  does  that  affect  the  truth  of  the  others  ?  If 
E  is  false  ?  I  ?  O  ? 

Such  comparison  of  related  sentences  should  enter 
largely  into  the  study  of  grammar  and  literature.  Pars- 
ing and  analysis  of  isolated  sentences  may  be  made  to 
develop  the  reason,  but  they  often  sink  to  the  level  of 
unthinking  formalism. 

In  arithmetic  and  algebra  dwell  much  upon  principles 
and  rules  for  operations,  and  less  upon  isolated  prob- 
lems. If  a  learner  is  master  of  the  laws  of  operations, 
he  knows  the  subject  ;  if  he  is  not,  he  does  not  know 
the  subject,  even  if  he  can  solve  problems.  The  pos- 
sible conditions  and  difficulties  that  can  be  introduced 
into  problems  are  almost  endless.  We  can  never  hope, 
therefore,  to  make  the  child  able  to  solve  with  ease  any 
problem  that  may  arise.  When  he  once  understands 


THOUGHT.  59 

the  laws  involved,  we  should  give  him  all  the  practice  in 
their  application  that  circumstances  will  permit,  but  we 
should  not  aim  at  the  impossible  task  of  exhausting  the 
side  of  practical  application  in  these  subjects. 

7.  Avoid  hasty  inductive  inferences.  Put  every  such 
inference  to  the  test  of  facts.  Much  of  this  should  be 
done  with  learners  in  the  physical  sciences,  because 
there  error  can  be  soon  uncovered.  Historical  infer- 
ences, judgments  upon  conduct  or  character,  opinions 
upon  questions  of  the  day,  etc.,  should  all  be  tested  by 
requiring  a  reason  for  the  faith  that  one  possesses. 
Such  practices  will  make  the  child  careful  in  forming 
opinions,  just  in  judging  character,  and  prudent  in 
business. 


6O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 


CHAPTER   VII. 
THE   FEELINGS,   OR   SENSIBILITIES. 

THE  sensibility,  or  capacity  to  experience  pleasures 
and  pains,  is  the  most  changeable  and  mysterious  of  all 
the  powers  of  the  human  so.ul.  Its  culture  demands 
the  greatest  skill,  discernment,  and  real  wisdom  required 
of  the  teacher  by  any  of  his  duties.  How  to  make  a 
child  kind  and  sympathetic  but  not  sentimental ;  how 
to  strengthen  self-reliance  without  rendering  the  child 
bombastic  and  conceited  ;  how  to  make  him  economical 
but  not  avaricious  ;  how  to  render  him  just  but  not 
pitiless,  —  these  and  many  other  problems  await  practical 
solution  and  are  to  find  it  in  the  proper  culture  of  the 
feelings. 

In  order  that  we  may  know  what  to  aim  at  in  culti- 
vating the  feelings,  a  brief  discussion  of  their  nature  is 
necessary.  In  all  conscious  experiences  there  is  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  pleasure  or  pain,  of  comfort  or  discom- 
fort, of  satisfaction  or  dissatisfaction.  Now,  we  use  the 
term  "  feeling,"  or  sensibility,  to  designate  the  capacity 
we  all  have  for  experiencing  such  agreeable  or  disagree- 
able states  of  mind;  and  we  call  the  products,  or  the 
mental  states  themselves,  feelings. 

These  feelings,  which  are  always  states  of  mind,  arise 
either  from  some  bodily  cause  or  from  the  thoughts  we 
may  be  entertaining.  If  the  feelings  are  the  result  of 
a  bodily  cause,  we  call  them  sensations.  These  sensa- 


THE  FEELINGS,  OR  SENSIBILITIES.  61 

tions  may  arise  from  the  action  of  the  special  sense 
organs,  the  eye,  ear,  nose,  mouth,  or  surface  of  the 
body  (touch  organ) ;  or  they  may  arise  from  the  action 
of  the  deeper  muscles,  or  the  internal  organs.  But  in 
every  case,  if  the  feeling  arises  from  a  bodily  cause,  it 
is  a  sensation.  Further,  we  need  not  give  in  this  place 
special  names  for  the  various  kinds  of  sensations,  as 
they  would  only  complicate  our  discussion,  and  would 
add  nothing  of  value  to  pedagogy. 

If  the  feelings  are  not  the  results  of  a  bodily  cause, 
but  arise  simply  from  the  entertainment  of  ideas,  we  call 
them  sentiments.  The  sentiments  may  arise  as  the  ac- 
companiment of  ideas  about  beauty,  goodness,  or  truth, 
and  then  we  call  them  respectively  the  aesthetic,  the 
moral,  or  the  intellectual  emotions  ;  or  they  may  have 
reference  to  other  persons,  when  we  call  them  affections 
(love,  a  benevolent  affection,  and  hate,  a  malevolent 
affection)  ;  or  they  may  be  feelings  that  go  out  toward 
some  object  and  are  accompanied  with  a  wish  to  possess 
it,  when  we  -scall  them  desires.  But,  neglecting  these 
distinctions,  the  important  thing  for  the  teacher  to  re- 
member is,  that  all  the  sentiments  are  feelings  which 
arise  as  the  accompaniments  of  ideas.  If  we  wish  to 
awaken  a  certain  sentiment  in  a  child,  we  must  give  to 
him  the  ideas  suited  to  arouse  that  sentiment. 

We  cannot  get  at  the  feelings  at  first  hand,  but  must 
regulate  them,  sensations  or  sentiments,  by  regulating 
either  the  bodily  states  or  the  flow  of  ideas.  If  we  de- 
sire a  child  to  have  pleasant  sensations,  we  do  not  *place 
his  body  in  a  strained  or  pinched  or  otherwise  uncomfort- 
able position,  and  then  say  to  him,  "  Now  be  comfortable 


62  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

\ 

and  enjoy  your  sensations."  We  proceed  immediately  to 
put  his  body  into  a  position  that  is  easy  and  free,  and 
where  the  stimuli  of  heat,  light,  etc.,  attack  it  in  a  way 
to  which  it  can  respond  with  ease,  and  then  he  becomes 
comfortable  in  body  as  an  immediate  result.  So,  if  we 
wish  a  child  to  have  sentiments  of  a  certain  kind,  we 
must  not  direct  him  to  feel  them,  but  we  must  impress 
upon  him  the  ideas  suited  to  produce  them  and  the 
feelings  will  come  as  a  necessity.  If  we  wish  to  get  a 
child  to  feel  pity  we  should  not  direct  him  to  do  so ; 
we  should  bring  to  his  notice  the  circumstances  of  per- 
sons who  are  in  a  pitiable  condition.  If  we  wish  him 
to  be  joyous,  fill  his  mind  with  thoughts  of  pleasurable 
things.  Especially  if  we  wish  a  child  to  change  quickly 
from  an  emotional  state  to  a  different  one,  it  is  use- 
less to  direct  him  to  make  the  change.  Force  upon 
his  attention  the  ideas  of  the  new  kind  and  the  change 
of  emotion  will  follow.  If  we  wish  a  child,  who  is  now 
gleeful,  to  become  serious  and  earnest,  we  may  require 
him  to  repress  the  expression  of  his  mirth  so  that  we 
may  get  at  his  thought,  but  then  immediately  there 
should  be  brought  to  him  some  ideas  that  will  require 
earnest  endeavor. 

As  the  mind  is  superior  to  the  body,  so  are  the  senti- 
ments superior  to  the  sensations.  Our  aim,  therefore, 
should  be  to  get  the  child  to  live  in  the  realm  of  the 
higher  sentiments  rather  than,  as  he  now  does,  in  the 
realm  of  sensations.  Educate  him  to  appreciate  and  en- 
joy the  delights  of  art,  literature,  and  reflection,  rather 
than  to  be  bound  down  to  the  gratification  of  his  sensu- 
ous nature  in  eating,  sleeping,  and  drinking,  The  aim 


THE    FEELINGS,    OR    SENSIBILITIES.  63 

of  education,  says  Compayre",  is  "to  substitute  the  book 
for  the  wine  bottle,  the  library  for  the  saloon  ;  in  a  word, 
to  replace  sensation  by  idea."  But,  while  this  is  to  be 
the  teacher's  aim,  he  must  always  remember  that  it  is 
necessary  to  appeal  to  a  child  through  the  medium  of 
the  things  which  he  can  appreciate.  A  child  is  best 
governed  and  taught  upon  his  highest  plane,  but  it  is  not 
possible  to  awaken  interest  by  appealing  to  the  things 
beyond  his  comprehension.  At  first,  it  is  doubtless  true 
that  the  only  sphere  of  feeling  for  a  person  is  that  of 
sensation  ;  to  this,  then,  we  must  appeal.  Work  may  be 
made  to  produce  pleasure,  and  indolence  to  give  pain. 
Right  doing  may  be  made  agreeable,  and  wrong  doing 
disagreeable.  But  when  the  child  shows  that  he  thinks 
upon  the  nature  of  such  matters  themselves,  and  not 
merely  upon  what  they  produce  as  consequences,  we 
should  appeal  to  his  thought,  expect  it  to  awaken  proper 
feelings,  and  gradually  discontinue  making  the  acts  pleas- 
urable or  painful.  The  satisfaction  of  right  doing,  of 
duty  performed,  of  wrong  inclination  checked,  should  be- 
gin to  be  reward  enough  to  stimulate  his  best  endeavor, 
even  though  the  acts  themselves  may  cease  to  be  pleas- 
urable or  may  become  positively  painful.  The  child 
must  learn  to  be  obedient,  patient,  kind,  truthful,  and  to 
practice  the  other  virtues,  even  though  the  effort  costs 
him  much.  To  neglect  giving  him  this  opportunity,  or 
even  pressing  him  to  its  performance,  when  his  mind  is 
mature  enough  to  be  thus  appealed  to,  is  to  degrade  the 
child  and  to  refuse  him  one  of  the  best  courses  of  growth 
available  to  any  one.  Now  an  appeal  to  the  pleasures  or 
pains  of  mere  sensation  should  be  made  only  when  it  is 


64  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

found  that  the  ends  of  government  or  teaching  cannot 
be  secured  in  the  higher  realm. 


Methods  of  Cultivating  the  Feelings. 

I.  By  repression.  Now  that  we  know  what  the  gen- 
eral aim  is  to  be  in  the  cultivation  of  the  feelings,  we 
must  inquire  into  the  methods  of  procedure  suited  to 
the  attainment  of  this  end.  For  every  desirable  feeling 
that  we  may  wish  to  strengthen,  we  shall  be  forced  to 
reckon  with  a  related  undesirable  one.  It  is  because  of 
the  persistence  of  such  injurious  feelings,  that  the  prob- 
lem of  the  culture  of  proper  feeling  is  so  difficult.  Hence 
our  first  method  of  cultivation  is  by  repression  of  these 
evils.  The  human  life  is  not  an  empty  thing  into  which 
a  feeling  of  some  kind  may  be  brought ;  if  it  were  so, 
we  should  be  free  to  choose  the  desired  feeling  and  then 
strengthen  that.  But,  in  fact,  feeling  of  some  kind  is 
always  present  with  us  ;  and,  when  we  come  to  the  task 
of  developing  any  kind  of  feeling,  we  may  find  its  oppo- 
site already  present  and  pressing  to  the  front  in  obedi- 
ence to  the  law  of  all  habit.  The  latter  must  be  brought 
under  control  before  the  life  is  free  to  develop  in  the 
line  of  its  choosing.  Not  that  the  wrong  must  first  be 
totally  eliminated.  That  is  impossible  ;  it  must  be  re- 
pressed. 

Now,  since  all  feelings  are  states  of  mind,  it  would 
seem  as  if  the  most  natural  thing  to  do  is  to  regulate 
directly  the  flow  of  ideas  which  make  the  feelings  pos- 
sible. But  while  this  would  undoubtedly  be  the  most 
direct  and  effective  way  of  reaching  the  result,  were  it 


THE    FEELINGS,    OR    SENSIBILITIES.  65 

possible,  it  is  too  difficult  an  undertaking  for  most  peo- 
ple to  venture  upon.  Accordingly  we  must  find  an 
easier  means  of  training  for  children.  We  have  it  in  the 
management  of  their  bodies.  All  feeling  tends  to  ex- 
pression through  the  body  ;  hence  the  first  thing  to  have 
a  child  do  in  learning  to  control  his  feelings,  is  to  have 
him  check  their  expression.  If  he  is  angry,  there  is  an 
immediate  tendency  for  it  to  find  expression  in  rigid 
muscles  ;  let  him  force  the  muscles  into  relaxation  for 
a  moment  and  the  anger  will  largely  evaporate.  If  he 
is  sad,  there  will  be  the  drooping  of  the  muscles  of 
the  face  ;  let  him  force  these  into  the  lifted  attitude  of 
laughter,  and  sadness  will  vanish. 

2.  By  stimulation.  But  if  such  a  check  is  the  first 
thing  to  apply  in  the  culture  of  the  feelings,  it  is  only 
that  the  child  may  have  an  opportunity  thereby  of  doing 
something  better.  When  the  expression  of  the  undesir- 
able feeling  is  checked,  and  the  individual  has  himself 
again  in  control,  it  will  be  for  only  a  short  time,  provided 
he  continues  to  entertain  the  thoughts  which  gave  rise 
to  the  feeling  at  the  first.  In  this,  then,  is  indicated  the 
second  natural  step.  The  child  must  immediately  fix 
his  mind  upon  such  ideas  as  will  give  rise  to  the  feelings 
desired.  He  must  dwell  upon  these  ideas,  perform  the 
bodily  actions  which  are  usually  employed  in  expressing 
such  feelings,  put  himself  in  the  midst  of  an  environment 
which  will  produce  the  ideas  he  wishes  —  in  a  word,  do 
everything  needed  to  keep  the  desirable  ideas  upper- 
most, and  then  the  undesirable  ones  can  have  no  place. 

The  above  directions  all  assume  that  the  child  is  in 
a  state  of  mind  caused  by  conflicting  emotions.  Many 


66  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

times  we  find  him  in  a  passive,  quiet,  but  desirable 
mood.  Then  there  is  no  necessity  for  repression,  but 
we  can  at  once  begin  stimulation.  In  this  it  is  encour- 
aging to  remember  that  the  oftener  we  arouse  the  desir- 
able feelings,  the  stronger  will  the  tendency  to  that  kind 
of  feeling  become.  As  a  result  of  this,  we  shall  find  the 
child  developing  a  certain  habitual  emotional  mood.  If 
this  is  of  the  right  kind  it  will  fortify  him,  as  all  right  hab- 
its do,  against  the  disturbances  of  opposing  wrong  ones. 
A  person  in  whom  joyous  emotion  has  become  habitual 
can  rise  above  the  occasional  tendencies  to  depression 
and  sadness.  This  emotional  state  may  be  made  habitual 
by  constantly  searching  for  the  bright,  encouraging, 
uplifting  features  in  things,  —  by  entertaining  suitable 
ideas. 

Another  means  of  stimulating  desirable  emotions  is  by 
acting  in  response  to  them  when  awakened.  Whenever 
a  child  has  his  feeling  of  pity  aroused,  he  should  be 
given  an  opportunity  to  do  something  to  relieve  the  con- 
dition which  awakens  pity.  If  his  pity  is  often  stirred 
by  the  artificial,  as  in  the  drama,  without  any  result  in 
action,  he  forms  the  habit  of  not  acting,  even  when  his 
sympathies  are  touched  by  real  and  deserving  objects. 
This  stage  presentation  of  the  pathetic,  which  we  know 
is  not  accompanied  by  real  suffering,  makes  the  emotions 
artificial,  and  the  result  is  a  hollow  sentimentalism.  If 
a  child  is  joyous  or  hopeful,  he  should  be  encouraged  to 
act  in  such  a  way  as  will  bring  joy  and  hope  to  others. 

Feelings  have  been  spoken  of  as  desirable  or  undesir- 
able. Is  there  any  basis  for  this  distinction  excepting 
that  of  mere  preference  ?  Are  not  certain  feelings  said 


THE    FEELINGS,    OR    SENSIBILITIES.  6/ 

to  be  more  desirable  than  others  because  that  affords  us 
a  ready  excuse  for  our  preference  ?  All  painful  feelings, 
whether  of  simple  sensation  or  of  the  higher  emotions, 
as  sorrow  and  fear,  are  depressing,  weakening,  and  sick- 
ening to  both  the  body  and  the  mind.  We  might  try  to 
argue  that  a  thing  is  wholesome  merely  because  it  is 
pleasant  to  the  taste,  and  unwholesome  when  it  is  not 
liked ;  but  if  it  positively  nauseates,  we  need  no  argu- 
ment to  convince  us  that  it  is  not  proper  for  us  to  eat. 
Now,  painful  feelings  might  still  be  profitable,  if  the  only 
objection  to  them  lay  in  their  being  unpleasant ;  but 
when  we  see  that  they  weaken  and  impair  the  efficiency 
of  the  person,  we  must  set  them  down  as  an  evil,  and 
hence,  as  undesirable.  In  practice  we  may  be  compelled 
to  resort  to  them  either  in  government  or  in  teaching, 
but  it  should  always  be  with  a  distinct  appreciation  of 
the  fact  that  they  are  then  a  necessary  evil  but  none  the 
less  an  evil,  and  they  should  be  put  away  just  as  soon  as 
the  opposite  emotions  will  effect  the  desired  result. 

Pleasurable  feelings  (either  sensuous  or  emotional,  as 
joy  and  hope)  strengthen,  invigorate,  and  render  the 
whole  being  more  efficient.  Nothing  will  impair  the 
strength  and  proper  working  of  the  bodily  functions  — 
digestion,  circulation,  etc.  —  more  quickly  than  grief  or 
anger ;  on  the  other  hand,  nothing  acts  as  a  better 
tonic  than  joy,  love,  hope,  and  the  other  pleasurable 
feelings.  It  is  just  as  true  that  these  pleasurable  feel- 
ings stimulate  the  whole  mental  power  to  better  service 
and  are  therefore  desirable. 

But,  while  it  is  evident  that  pleasure  is  more  valuable 
than  pain  as  the  prevalent  state  of  the  sensibilities,  it 


68  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  question  of  quantity  of 
either  is  also  important.  An  intense  state  of  joy  — 
delight  or  ecstacy — is  disastrous  in  its  effects  upon 
intellectual  activity.  A  person  in  the  height  of  raptur- 
ous feeling  can  never  think  soberly  and  wisely.  Such 
rapture  may  be  a  good  thing  to  introduce  occasionally 
because  of  its  uplifting  and  restful  effects,  but  it  should 
not  be  resorted  to  often.  A  mental  atmosphere  that  is 
pervaded  with  hopefulness,  kindliness,  and  joyful  interest 
is  the  atmosphere  to  cultivate  in  the  schoolroom.  Hope- 
lessness is  of  all  things  perhaps  the  most  depressing, 
and  especially  in  a  child,  with  such  a  large  future  before 
him.  But  "  quiescence  of  emotion  is  the  best  condition 
for  intellectual  activity,"  and  even  then  it  must  be 
emotion  of  the  right  kind. 

Even  though  pleasure  is  to  be  preferred  to  pain,  this 
distinction  alone  will  not  carry  the  teacher  far  in  his 
effort  to  cultivate  the  feelings  of  his  pupils.  We  must 
also  determine  a  scale  of  excellence  in  pleasures  them- 
selves. It  is  plain  that  a  person  may  find  pleasure  in 
that  which  is  low  and  sensuous,  or  in  that  which  is  ele- 
vating, spiritual,  ennobling.  What  can  we  take  as  the 
mark  of  progress  toward  this  latter  end  ?  Broadly  con- 
sidered, we  elevate  the  feelings  in  proportion  as  we 
intellectualize  them.  The  pleasure  of  discovery  in  truth 
is  more  to  be  desired  in  our  pupils  than  the  pleasure 
derived  from  eating  or  from  the  gratification  of  vanity. 
As  the  child  matures,  and  his  fund  of  information  in- 
creases and  his  power  of  thought  enlarges,  we  should 
strive  to  reveal  to  him  the  intellectual  element  in  all  his 
lines  of  enjoyment.  It  is  this  element  which  marks  the 


THE    FEELINGS,    OR    SENSIBILITIES.  69 

difference  between  classical  music  and  pleasing  jingles, 
paintings  of  great  artists  and  mere  daubs,  literary  works 
of  great  merit  and  mere  stories  ;  and  this  is  what  consti- 
tutes their  permanence  and  value.  The  shallow  music, 
which  by  its  easy  jingling  character  catches  and  pleases 
the  ear,  may  be  taken  up  by  the  masses  and  become  for 
a  brief  time  the  subject  of  eager  and  ungovernable 
desire;  but  when  the  sense  has  become  weary  of  re- 
sponding to  that  peculiar  and  pleasing  stimulus,  there  is 
nothing  else  in  the  music  to  engage  the  mind  and  it  is 
soon  dropped  and  forgotten.  If  it  ever  again  becomes 
so  popular,  it  must  be  with  a  new  generation  of  persons. 
So  it  is  with  all  other  forms  of  art ;  if  the  pleasing 
quality  in  them  is  merely  sensuous,  they  will  cease  to 
satisfy  the  person  who  is  becoming  intelligent  along 
those  lines.  He  has  risen  to  larger  and  nobler  enjoy- 
ment. It  is  because  of  the  wealth  of  meaning  which 
addresses  itself  to  the  intelligence,  in  music,  or  painting, 
or  writing,  that  the  classic  in  them  lives  and  engages  the 
admiration  of  men.  It  is  to  this  that  the  child  should 
be  educated,  and  in  this  that  he  should  find  his  greatest 
enjoyment.  Nothing  will  make  this  possible  to  any  one 
but  habitual  contact  with  that  which  is  grand  and  signifi- 
cant in  all  these  forms  of  art,  and  increased  enlighten- 
ment in  that  which  the  classic  is  meant  to  reveal. 

This  purifying  of  the  feelings  must  receive  attention 
in  one  other  domain  in  our  discussion.  We  have  spoken 
of  stimulating  the  feelings  to  proper  response  in  the  dis- 
covery of  truth,  and  also  in  the  revelation  of  the  deeper 
significance  of  beauty.  It  remains  only  to  show  its  possi- 
bilities in  the  realm  of  the^w*/,  or  morals.  To  many  per- 


7O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

sons  the  term  •'  conscience  "  signifies  merely  the  feelings 
that  are  aroused  by  doing  right  or  wrong.  In  truth  a 
person's  conscience  is  his  reason  applied  to  his  own  moral 
conduct ;  and,  as  all  reasoning  is  accompanied  by  feeling, 
the  element  of  approval  or  of  disapproval  will  appear. 
Conscience  is  not,  then,  a  distinct  faculty  ;  but  rather  a 
name  for  our  dual  capacity  of  intelligence  and  feeling 
when  they  are  applied  to  our  conduct  in  the  moral  realm. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  feeling  element  in  con- 
science may  be  cultivated  along  two  lines,  —  that  of 
certain  response  to  what  we  in  our  immaturity  have 
grown  accustomed  to  calling  right  or  wrong,  and  that  of 
response  to  what  we  in  our  growing  enlightenment  know 
is  right  or  wrong.  We  should  make  the  conscience  very 
sensitive  to  what  we  think  right,  and  we  should  improve 
our  notions  of  the  right  in  order  that  it  may  be  made 
sensitive  to  only  the  proper  things.  In  training  the 
conscience  we  need  to  enlighten  the  person,  while  at 
the  same  time  we  impress  upon  him  the  importance  of 
conformity  to  its  dictates.  A  person  of  good  intentions 
may  be  very  unjust  and  dangerous  because  of  his  igno- 
rance. If  we  would  be  good  (to  any  positive  purpose), 
therefore,  we  must  be  wise. 

How,  then,  shall  this  greater  enlightenment  and 
greater  sensitiveness  of  the  conscience  be  brought 
about  ?  Whatever  will  increase  the  learner's  knowledge, 
strengthen  his  judgment,  and,  at  the  same  time,  make 
him  as  fair  in  applying  his  true  judgment  to  his  own  act 
as  he  is  in  judging  the  acts  of  others,  will  indirectly  train 
his  conscience  on  the  side  of  intelligence.  If  we  add  to 
this  a  special  study  of  the  reasonableness  of  just  moral 


THE    FEELINGS,    OR    SENSIBILITIES.  /I 

claims,  we  shall  add  to  the  enlightenment  of  his  con- 
science all  that  the  schools  can  do  in  a  theoretical  way. 
But  with  this  it  is  well  to  remember  that,  since  morality 
is  a  matter  of  practical  living,  doing  the  right  will  open  up 
to  the  individual  many  items  for  his  judgment  which  could 
not  be  apprehended  in  any  other  way.  We  learn  some 
things  through  experience  which  could  not  be  conveyed 
to  us  by  any  other  means ;  these,  then,  become  items 
which  will  enter  into  our  future  judgments,  and  we  have 
a  better  basis  of  fact  on  which  to  form  a  judgment  than 
persons  can  have  who  have  been  denied  such  experiences. 
But  most  wrong-doing,  which  forces  itself  upon  our 
attention,  does  not  arise  from  ignorance  ;  it  arises  be- 
cause of  a  disregard  of  known  obligations.  How,  then, 
can  this  greater  sensitiveness  to  the  dictates  of  reason 
in  the  moral  realm  be  cultivated  ?  Only  by  implicit  obe- 
dience to  the  behests  of  conscience.  He  who  persistently 
does  what  he  knows  is  wrong,  even  though  at  first  his 
conscience  may  have  condemned  and  tormented  him, 
will  soon  have  his  sensibilities  so  blunted  that  they  will 
give  him  but  little  if  any  uneasiness.  And  when  he 
reaches  the  point  of  known  wrong-doing  without  any 
accompaniment  of  uneasiness,  there  is  little  hope  of  his 
reformation,  unless  his  course  in  life  is  first  checked  by 
some  great  calamity  or  other  unexpected  event  which 
momentarily  rivets  his  attention  and  forces  him  to  think. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  who  habitually  acts  in  obedience 
to  the  dictates  of  reason  in  matters  of  right  and  wrong, 
whose  feelings  are  the  pleasures  of  self-approval,  will 
soon  reach  a  point  of  refinement  in  conscience  wherein 
right  doing  will  be  his  first  inclination  and  his  greatest  joy. 


72  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 
THE  WILL. 

A  MAN  of  genius  is  popularly  thought  to  be  one  who 
is  endowed  with  some  peculiar  intellectual  quality,  which 
fixes  his  destiny  at  such  a  height  that,  without  hard 
work,  he  can  easily  outstrip  his  rivals.  We  approach 
much  nearer  to  the  absolute  truth  when  we  declare  that 
if  a  man  has  an  intellect  generously  though  not  lavishly 
endowed,  and  a  capacity  for  intense  application,  he  can 
become  a  genius.  And  the  most  encouraging  element 
in  this  thought  is,  that  this  capacity  for  hard  work  is 
capable  of  development,  because  it  is  dependent  upon 
the  will  and  the  will  is  capable  of  development.  All 
men  possess  it  to  some  degree,  and  all  may  by  proper 
effort  have  it  increased. 

By  the  will  we  mean  "  the  soul's  capacity  to  determine 
the  extent  and  kind  of  its  own  actions."  In  childhood 
this  power  is  relatively  small  and  should  be  exercised  for 
only  a  brief  period  at  a  time ;  most  of  the  actions  are 
then  impulsive,  or  at  least  non-voluntary.  It  is  well 
that  this  is  so,  for  a  strong  will  should  be  coupled  with 
a  strong  judgment.  This  latter  the  child  does  not  pos- 
sess, and  he  must  therefore  submit  to  the  guidance  of 
the  maturer  judgments  of  others.  Having  the  faculty 
of  self -direct  ion  in  but  a  small  degree,  he  is  more  easily 
diverted,  and  thus  managed  in  accordance  with  reason  at 
a  time  when  it  would  be  useless  to  attempt  to  reason 


THE    WILL.  73 

with  him.  But  as  his  reason  develops  we  should  grad- 
ually withdraw  from  him  the  interference  of  outside 
authority.  When  we  see  him  in  error  we  may  check 
him,  but  it  is  not  wise  to  do  so  even  then,  unless  we  see 
that  the  error  carries  with  it  too  severe  consequences  to 
warrant  our  letting  him  suffer  them.  Any  other  plan  of 
exercising  authority  will  render  the  child  permanently 
dependent  upon  others,  and  will  unfit  him  for  the  stern 
requirements  of  life. 

It  should  be  repeated  here  that,  though  we  have 
treated  the  several  capacities  of  the  mind  as  if  they  were 
distinct  powers  simply  operating  in  conjunction  with  each 
other,  this  is  done  merely  to  help  us  in  our  study  of  the 
complicated  power  called  the  mind.  In  this  same  way 
we  analyze  things  in  other  sciences,  and  there  is  no 
more  reason  for  our  forgetting  the  unity  of  the  mind 
than  there  is  for  forgetting  the  unity  of  other  things 
which  have  been  torn  apart,  at  least  in  thought,  for  the 
purpose  of  study.  At  no  place  can  this  complication, 
and  yet  the  essential  unity,  be  better  seen  than  in  the 
study  of  deliberative  action,  which  we  are  accustomed  to 
call  willed  action,  because  its  distinctive  mark  is  that  of 
control.  In  the  first  place,  several  alternative  courses 
are  presented  to  the  mind  (arousing  the  feelings) ;  they 
may  be,  say,  a  day's  journey,  a  day  of  sport,  and  a  day 
of  work  with  its  resultant  earnings.  Each  of  these  is 
pleasant  and  inviting.  They  all,  therefore,  act  as  solici- 
tations to  the  person.  But  when  they  produce  their 
effect  upon  his  feelings,  he  cannot  act  in  response  to 
them  all ;  so  he  exercises  his  mind  (intelligence,  thought 
power)  in  deciding  upon  the  relative  worths  of  the 


74  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

courses.  He  is  very  fond  of  sports,  but  then  when  the 
day  is  done  he  will  have  nothing  to  show  for  it ;  he 
delights  in  travel,  and  this  will  bring  him  some  perma- 
nent things  to  enjoy  in  remembrance  and  to  talk  about  ; 
he  is  not  fond  of  work  more  than  others  are,  and  yet  he 
has  certain  ambitions  which  money  will  help  him  to 
attain.  These  ambitions  have  reference  to  what  is  more 
enduring  than  anything  else  in  his  life,  and  he  reflects 
that,  with  them  accomplished,  he  can  travel  as  much  as 
he  desires  and  can  get  more  out  of  it  than  he  is  now 
prepared  to  get.  Being  a  thoughtful  person,  he  con- 
cludes that  the  last  course  is  much  the  best  course. 
Still  the  battle  is  not  won  ;  he  must  put  forth  his  mental 
energy  (will)  in  choosing  what  his  good  judgment  has 
decided  is  best,  and  in  repelling  the  strong  inclinations 
of  his  life  toward  present  pleasure  in  sport  or  travel ; 
and  he  must  persist  in  the  exercise  of  his  will  till  the 
end  is  reached  and  the  task  is  fully  executed.  Persons 
fail  many  times  in  not  putting  forth  the  necessary  energy 
to  initiate  a  proper  course  of  action  ;  they  fail,  perhaps 
quite  as  often,  by  not  persisting  in  the  right  course  till 
the  end  is  reached  and  the  reward  gained. 

Though  examples  like  the  above  can  be  seen  every 
day  in  the  people  about  us,  still  there  are  those  who 
deny  the  freedom  of  the  will.  This  is  no  place  for  dis- 
cussion upon  such  a  topic,  but  it  will  be  well  to  examine 
some  of  the  errors  in  the  opinion  and  to  set  teachers 
right  with  respect  to  the  meaning  of  a  free  will.  To 
many,  freedom  means  the  privilege  to  do  as  one  pleases. 
With  such  a  meaning  there  is  no  free  will,  for  we  are  all 
limited  by  our  inborn  and  acquired  capacity,  by  the  de- 


THE    WILL  75 

mands  of  environment,  and  by  the  inexorable  require- 
ments of  time,  space,  etc.  But  the  privilege  to  do  as 
one  pleases  can  mean  nothing  in  a  community  of  social 
beings  but  license  and  a  rule  of  might.  If  each  man 
starts  with  the  privilege  to  do  as  he  pleases,  soon  several 
will  wish  to  do  what  will  make  demands  upon  others, 
what  will  require  more  than  one  at  a  given  place  at  one 
time,  etc. ;  now,  it  is  simply  a  question  of  power,  and 
then,  the  ones  that  are  overpowered  have  their  privileges 
denied  them  by  others.  To  overcome  such  a  reign  of 
power  and  interference,  law  is  necessary.  This  circum- 
scribes the  scope  of  action  for  each  individual  so  as  to 
prevent  a  clashing  of  interests,  and  to  make  each  a  par- 
taker, in  the  highest  degree,  of  the  accomplishments  of 
all.  Freedom  then  becomes  that  condition  which  is 
brought  about  by  an  implicit  obedience  to  all  just  law. 
Whether  the  law  is  moral,  natural,  or  civil,  the  indi- 
vidual is  free  within  each  domain  only  in  proportion  to 
his  obedience  within  that  domain.  He  may  be  a  free 
man  in  the  civil  sense  and  be  in  moral  bondage.  It 
is  evident,  then,  that  an  increase  in  the  number  of  just 
prohibitory  laws  which  are  enforced  must  mean  an  in- 
crease in  popular  freedom,  because  it  circumscribes  the 
field  of  action  of  the  intruder  by  just  so  much  —  there 
being  no  just  prohibitory  laws  excepting  those  which 
prohibit  an  infraction  of  other  people's  rights. 

But  when  we  speak  of  free  will  we  cannot  mean  free- 
dom even  in  the  legitimate  sense  given  above,  for  man 
has  the  power  to  disobey  law  (though  he  may  be  com- 
pelled to  suffer  the  consequences  of  his  disobedience), 
and  we  call  this  power  his  free  will.  Just  what  do  we 


76  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

mean,  then,  by  free  will  ?  We  mean  man's  capacity  to 
select,  from  among  the  alternatives  presented  to  him, 
that  which  he  intends  to  follow. 

But  some  object,  saying,  "  Is  not  man  bound  to  follow 
the  strongest  motive,  and  therefore  is  he  not  lacking  in 
freedom  ? "  What,  then,  does/the  strongest  motive  mean  ? 
Motives  are  not  forces  operating  upon  men  to  which 
those  men  are  bound  to  surrender.  Motives  are  con- 
ditions within  the  individual's  own  mind ;  they  are  not 
physical  powers.  A  thing  possesses  motive  worth  for  a 
man  only  in  proportion  as  his  mind  responds  to  it,  not  in 
proportion  to  any  energy  inherent  in  it.  Use  anything 
as  a  motive  for  a  class  of  persons  ;  it  will  not  affect 
them  all  with  the  same  force.  If  used  with  the  same 
person  on  two  different  occasions,  it  is  not  likely  to  affect 
him  in  the  same  manner  both  times.  This  is  not 
because  it  is  resisted  more  at  one  time  than  at  another, 
or  by  one  person  more  than  by  another.  No  resistance 
is  put  forth  ;  the  person  is  simply  indifferent  to  it.  If 
it  were  a  physical  power,  it  would  operate  upon  them  all 
alike,  and  upon  any  one  with  the  same  force  each  time ; 
the  only  reason  it  would  not  produce  the  same  external 
effect  each  time  is,  because  the  different  persons  resist 
it  with  different  degrees  of  energy.  But,  if  this  is  pos- 
sible, and  we  see  it  actually  done,  then  the  motive  might 
even  be  regarded  as  a  physical  force  and  the  person 
would  still  be  free,  for  his  freedom  is  manifested  in  his 
resistance.  That  which  gives  to  anything  a  value  as  a 
motive  is  the  attitude  of  the  individual's  mind  toward 
the  thing.  It  is  fair,  then,  to  assert  that  a  man  always 
follows  the  strongest  motive ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it 


THE    WILL.  77 

must  be  remembered  that  he  makes  it  the  strongest  by 
directing  his  mind  to  it  as  he  does,  and  in  this  part  lies 
his  free  will. 

By  this  it  is  not  meant  that  a  person  is  entirely 
imtrammeled  by  environment  or  past  experience.  These 
are  always  entering  as  interferences ;  but  they  are 
merely  conditions,  and  not  forces  of  which  man  is  the 
product.  With  an  environment  that  encourages  ener- 
getic growth  in  the  right  direction,  and  a  persistent 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  individual,  a  man  can  accom- 
plish more  than  he  can  if  a  great  part  of  his  energy  is 
exhausted  in  resisting  and  altering  the  environing  con- 
ditions which  would  drag  him  down.  But  the  simple 
fact  that  he  can  rise  above  his  environment,  that  he  can 
become  a  power  for  good  out  of  the  very  midst  of  an 
environment  of  evil,  is  evidence  of  his  free  will. 

It  is  nearer  the  truth  to  assert  that  a  man  is  at  any 
time  just  what  his  past  experiences  (of  which  his  free 
choices  form  an  important  item)  have  made  him.  If  he 
has  lived  in  bondage  to  evil  habits,  he  will  be  enslaved ; 
if  he  has  lived  in  the  pure  atmosphere  of  a  holy  purpose, 
he  will  be  elevated  and  pure  in  character ;  if  he  has 
been  satisfied  with  superficial  views  of  things,  he  will  be 
superficial ;  if  he  has  given  himself  up  an  easy  prey  to 
passing  and  uncertain  moods,  he  will  be  a  victim  of  inde- 
cision of  character.  In  a  word,  whatever  has  entered 
into  his  experience  has  stamped  itself  indelibly  upon  his 
life  and  has  done  its  share  toward  the  formation  of  ac- 
cumulated tendencies  of  that  life.  But  this  does  not 
detract  one  iota  from  his  free  will.  It  simply  means 
that  his  present  entire  condition"  is  an  effect  of  all  his 


78  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

past.  If  that  present  condition  is  in  the  main  an  unde- 
sirable one,  it  means  that  the  man  has  that  much  more 
to  overcome  Should  he,  in  the  exercise  of  his  freedom,  set 
about  the  formation  of  a  desirable  character ;  on  the 
other  hand,  if  that  condition  is  one  with  a  preponder- 
ance of  right,  it  means  that  the  individual  will  be  sup- 
ported by  just  that  much  in  the  use  of  his  freedom  in 
strengthening  his  character. 

Adopting,  then,  the  language  of  James  Mark  Baldwin, 
we  can  say :  "  Freedom,  therefore,  is  a  fact,  if  by  it  we 
mean  the  expression  of  one's  self  as  conditioned  by  past 
choices  and  present  environment.  It  is  not  a  fact  in 
any  sense  which  denies  that  volition  is  thus  conditioned, 
first,  upon  the  actual  content  of  consciousness  as  it 
swings  down  the  tide  of  personal  life  and  presses  out- 
ward for  motor  expression ;  and  second,  upon  the 
environing  circumstances  which  draw  the  motor  con- 
sciousness out.  Free  choice  is  a  synthesis,  the  outcome 
of  which  is,  in  every  case,  conditioned  upon  its  elements, 
but  in  no  case  caused  by  them.  A  logical  inference  is 
conditioned  upon  its  premises,  but  it  is  not  caused  by 
them.  Both  inference  and  choice  express  the  nature  of 
the  conscious  principal  and  the  unique  method  of  its 
life." 

But  what  reasons  can  be  adduced  for  regarding  the 
development  of  the  will  as  important  ?  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  at  the  basis  of  all  one's  power  of  attention.  It 
is  granted  that  the  mind  cannot  continue  to  give  undi- 
vided attention,  for  a  long  time,  to  that  which  is  unin- 
teresting ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  true  that,  if  the 
will  is  strong,  the  attention  can  be  directed  to  the 


THE    WILL.  79 

uninteresting  thing,  and  its  truth  uncovered,  so  that, 
before  the  energy  of  a  strong  will  is  exhausted,  the 
thing  will  become  interesting.  If  study  is  to  be  valu- 
uable  it  must  be  made  a  serious  business,  and  not 
mere  child's  play.  This  does  not  mean  that  it  should 
be  made  uninteresting  and  uninviting,  in  order  that  it 
may  serve  to  develop  greater  robustness  of  character. 
Food  is  not  valuable  in  proportion  as  it  is  disgusting 
and  nauseating ;  but  between  substantial  food,  that  is 
palatable  and  inviting,  and  mere  sweets,  unfitted  to 
serve  as  regular  diet,  there  is  a  great  difference.  So 
study  may  be  made  a  serious  business,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  be  made  invigorating,  enjoyable,  and  rich  with 
promise  and  hopefulness.  The  objection  lies  in  an 
attempt  to  remove  all  of  its  difficulties,  to  save  the  child 
from  all  necessity  of  effort,  and  to  toy  him  into  learning. 
This  may  do  as  an  attitude  of  a  kindergarten,  but,  as 
the  child  advances,  his  highest  joy  should  come  from 
the  consciousness  of  a  developing  power  that  can  over- 
come difficulties,  not  from  the  realization  that  there  is 
some  one  near  him  to  remove  them. 

In  the  second  place,  a  developed  will  is  at  the  founda- 
tion of  one's  self-mastery  in  every  domain.  Evil  incli- 
nations are  to  be  resisted  and  removed.  To  yield  to 
them  means  to  retard  the  growth  of  good  character,  and 
to  enslave  the  person.  Only  a  developed  will  can  inhibit 
the  expression  and  consequent  strengthening  of  such 
inclinations.  Tendencies  to  ease  and  indifference,  when 
duties  are  pressing  upon  us,  must  be  overcome.  Only 
a  will,  habituated  to  acting  vigorously  in  response  to  the 
dictates  of  reason,  can  be  relied  upon  to  accomplish  this. 


80  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

Whether  the  self-mastery  is  in  the  direction  of  concen- 
trated effort  toward  the  accomplishment  of  work,  or  the 
repression  of  inclinations  which  should  not  be  gratified, 
the  same  strong  will  is  requisite  for  either.  Such  self- 
control,  it  should  be  remembered,  comes  to  most  persons 
only  by  hard  work  persevered  in  for  a  long  time.  But, 
though  it  requires  such  unbroken  and  prolonged  effort 
for  most  persons  to  win  the  victory  of  self-mastery,  it 
pays  large  returns  for  the  outlay.  "  He  that  is  slow  to 
anger  is  better  than  the  mighty ;  and  he  that  ruleth  his 
spirit  than  he  that  taketh  a  city." 

In  the  third  place,  the  most  important  agent  in  the 
formation  of  what  we  call  character  is  will.  This  capacity 
for  self-direction,  if  strengthened,  can  overcome  every 
other  element  which  enters  into  the  problem  of  character 
building.  It  is  clearly  recognized  that  one's  inheritance 
may  interfere  greatly  with  his  efforts  at  self-development. 
Abnormal  tendencies,  which  interfere  with  the  even 
balance  of  a  life,  may  fall  to  one  as  a  birthright.  But 
the  establishment  of  schools  and  reform  institutions  of 
every  kind  stands  out  as  a  public  protest  against  the 
claim  that  one's  inheritance  settles  unchangeably  his 
character.  These  things  are  maintained  as  opportunities 
for  persons  who  will  to  develop  themselves  into  the  best 
of  which  they  are  capable.  No  one  will  seriously  argue 
that  a  person  born  with  only  one  talent  is  capable  of 
development  into  the  splendid  symmetrical  manhood 
that  may  characterize  the  person  born  with  ten  talents. 
But  it  needs  not  a  philosopher  to  maintain  the  claim  that 
a  person  born  with  ten  talents  may,  if  he  lacks  perse- 
vering industry,  fall  far  below  the  level  of  attainment 


THE    WILL.  8  I 

reached  by  an  earnest  worker  born  with  much  less  of 
native  endowment. 

Man  should  not  be  compared  with  man  in  estimating 
his  development.  Each  man  should  be  compared  with 
his  own  past.  Not  what  absolute  strength  has  been 
attained,  but  what  proportion  of  increase  has  been  made, 
determines  the  excellence  of  his  progress.  The  school 
is  doing  its  best  work,  and  is  aiming  at  the  most  prac- 
ticable end,  when  it  is  so  planned  that  it  affords  an 
opportunity  for  each  pupil  to  make  of  himself  the  best 
of  which  he  is  capable.  This,  each  child  has  a  moral 
right  to  become  ;  but  the  only  power  that  will  make  it 
possible  for  him  to  attain  such  an  end,  even  in  the  midst 
of  the  greatest  opportunities,  is  this  power  of  self- 
direction,  —  the  will. 

Neither  is  it  forgotten  that  a  hurtful  environment 
enslaves  many  men,  and  serves  as  a  great  hindrance  to 
the  easy  development  of  a  pure  character,  in  all.  But 
this,  too,  must  fail  in  its  attempt  to  conquer  the  man  of 
will.  Poverty,  filth,  and  moral  pollution  may  be  great 
and  serious  drawbacks  to  the  development  of  manly 
character.  Food,  clothing,  and  the  other  necessaries  of 
life  must  be  secured  first  to  maintain  life,  before  we  can 
do  anything  toward  lifting  men  to  the  level  attainable  by 
those  who  are  more  fortunately  circumstanced.  But  in 
the  very  act  of  securing  these  things,  the  moral  character 
may  be  developed  into  magnificent  strength.  And  the 
will,  which  is  requisite  for  their  attainment,  gets  some  of 
its  best  culture  in  the  very  activity  rendered  necessary 
by  these  demands.  Not  that  we  regard  a  training  in 
the  school  of  toil  as  necessary  to  the  production  of  a 


82  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

strong  will ;  but  it  is  encouraging  to  remember  that  even 
the  stern  demands  of  existence  may  contain  a  hidden 
blessing.  Wealth,  as  popularly  measured,  is  simply  an 
objective  possession,  and  must  not  be  regarded  as  an 
index  of  any  strength  of  soul.  A  man  who,  because  of 
adverse  circumstances,  may  have  failed  to  accumulate 
much  objective  wealth,  may  still  get,  as  a  return  for 
his  exercise  of  will,  greater  wealth  of  character  than  has 
ever  entered  into  the  thought  of  his  more  comfortable 
neighbor. 

But,  notwithstanding  these  objective  differences,  we 
still  maintain  that  neither  heredity  nor  environment  can 
fix  the  destiny  of  a  man.  The  most  potent  factor  in 
settling  that  destiny,  as  evidenced  by  his  character,  is 
the  man's  own  will.  This  power  alone  can  overcome 
the  effects  of  evil  inheritance,  and  remove  the  objec- 
tionable elements  in  an  undesirable  environment. 

Character  might  be  briefly  described  as  the  sum  of 
the  habits  which  one  has  established  in  his  life.  By 
habits  we  must  then  include  habits  of  thought  and  of 
feeling  as  well  as  of  action.  These  settle  what  a  man  is 
at  any  given  time,  and  what  his  potential  capacities  then 
are.  If  habit  is  so  comprehensive  a  term  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  life,  its  formation  must  be  of  great  moment 
to  teachers.  To  this  problem,  then,  we  must  next  address 
ourselves. 

In  brief,  a  habit  is  established  by  repeatedly  perform- 
ing an  act,  and  it  is  destroyed  by  refraining  from  the 
performance  of  the  act.  In  no  other  way  can  a  habit 
be  established  and  in  no  other  way  can  a  habit  that 
has  been  formed  be  removed.  Simply  to  refrain  from 


THE    WILL.  83 

action  may  not  be  sufficient  for  a  life,  but,  whatever  else 
is  done,  nothing  will  break  down  a  habit  but  refraining 
from  the  action  which  has  become  habitual. 

The  most  important  thing  to  do  at  the  outset,  in  the 
formation  of  a  habit,  is  to  surround  the  child  with  every- 
thing at  yotir  command  which  will  add  to  his  strength 
and  enlarge  his  confidence  in  ultimate  success.  To  this 
end  the  child  should  be  assured  of  the  teacher's  interest 
and  support.  He  will  be  greatly  helped  if  he  has  the 
advantages  of  the  habit  pointed  out  to  him.  The  en- 
thusiasm of  numbers,  which  may  be  secured  by  having 
several  engaged  in  the  formation  of  a  given  habit,  will 
do  much  to  insure  success.  The  spirit  of  rivalry,  which 
is  so  potent  a  factor  in  sports,  may  thus  be  reasonably 
employed.  If  he  can  be  brought  to  sign  a  written 
pledge  willingly,  or  to  make  a  verbal  promise  to  a  friend, 
the  course  will  be  justified  by  the  additional  motive  which 
it  furnishes  for  faithfulness,  and  also  by  the  importance 
which  attaches  to  the  end,  the  question  of  such  promise 
being  not  a  normal  but  only  a  prudential  one.  Any 
righteous  course  which  will  make  the  child  enthusiastic 
in  his  undertaking  and  determined  to  succeed  will  be 
wise.  Everything  possible  should  be  done  to  keep  him 
in  a  vigorous  and  hopeful  frame  of  mind. 

When  he  is  thus  wisely  started,  he  should  be  urged 
to  suffer  no  exceptions  to  occur.  Indecision  of  character, 
lack  of  persistency  of  effort,  failure  to  respond  when 
the  conditions  exist,  are  elements  which  will  prove  fatal 
to  the  formation  of  desirable  habits.  The  attempt  to 
"taper  off"  has  proved  to  be  the  cause  of  utter  defeat 
in  many  a  life,  struggling  earnestly  but  unwisely  for  self- 


84  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

mastery.  Each  lapse  in  the  attempt  to  break  down  a 
bad  habit  (which  can  be  safely  done  only  by  putting  in 
its  place  a  contrary  good  one)  will  undo  more  than  can 
be  repaired  by  many  successes. 

In  the  attempt  to  establish  proper  habits  we  should 
begin  as  early  as  possible  in  life  ;  then  we  shall  find  the 
smallest  number  of  disturbing  conditions.  While  there 
are  no  strong  inclinations  established  in  any  direction,  it 
is  easy  to  set  the  current  of  life  flowing  in  the  line  of 
our  choice.  But  every  day  that  we  allow  to  pass  before 
beginning  to  give  earnest  attention  to  this  matter  in- 
creases the  difficulty  of  our  undertaking.  Like  Rip 
Van  Winkle  we  may  refuse  to  count  this  time,  and 
deceive  ourselves  with  the  thought  that,  if  we  are  not 
meaning  to  fix  a  habit,  no  habit  is  being  formed.  But 
then  we  forget  that  each  day  we  are  acting  somehow, 
either  in  the  direction  of  the  habit  which  is  to  be  formed 
later  or  in  another  direction,  and  that  each  act  registers 
its  effects  upon  our  organism  and  leaves  us,  in  conse- 
quence, either  better  or  more  poorly  provided  for  the 
struggle  of  life.  The  simple  fact  of  life  is  that  we  are 
every  moment  forming  habits,  whether  we  mean  to  or 
not,  and  if  we  do  not  rule  our  actions  so  as  to  form 
proper  habits,  the  improper  ones,  formed  during  our 
time  of  neglect,  will  soon  rule  us.  No  truth  is  more 
certainly  established  than  this,  that  a  habit  once  formed 
tends  to  exclude  the  possibility  of  forming  any  contrary 
one,  and  that  an  act  performed  has  left  its  permanent 
impress  upon  the  life,  and  done  its  part  toward  the 
formation  of  a  habit. 

But  little  needs  to   be   said   in  the  way  of   definite 


THE    WILL.  85 

directions  for  the  development  of  the  will.  From  the 
outset,  we  should  assume  its  presence  in  the  child,  and 
call  upon  him  to  exercise  it.  If  he  seems  to  be  more 
than  ordinarily  lacking  in  strength  of  will,  that  fact  will 
doubtless  be  manifested  by  his  acting  simply  in  response 
to  his  feelings.  If  he  has  an  inclination  to  action  in  a 
certain  questionable  direction,  he  will  follow  that  inclina- 
tion, and  offer  as  a  sufficient  reason  for  so  doing  that 
he  feels  like  it.  If  he  has  no  inclination  to  act  when 
a  duty  calls  him  to  do  so,  he  will  dismiss  the  obligation 
and  offer  as  his  reason  that  he  does  not  feel  like  doing  it. 

When  a  person  is  found  in  such  a  state  as  this  he 
needs  teaching  along  several  important  lines.  He  needs 
to  have  his  sense  of  obligation  aroused.  This  can  be 
done  best  by  showing  him  the  advantages  accruing  from 
the  performance  of  duty,  and  the  consequences  which 
he  must  suffer  for  its  neglect.  Prudential  reasons  will 
appeal  to  a  person  until  his  larger  enlightenment  and 
moral  sense  reveal  to  him  the  real  worth  of  right  doing. 
We  must  not  expect  the  little  child  to  be  judicious,  so 
it  is  necessary  that  the  teacher's  judgment  should  be 
made  to  serve  him,  and  this  can  be  revealed  through 
commands,  backed  up  by  rewards  and  punishments  when 
necessary.  In  general,  it  is  better  to  secure  results,  if 
possible,  through  the  application  of  pleasure  than 
through  that  of  pain.  But  results  must  be  secured, 
and,  if  the  highest  motive  is  found  to  be  inoperative 
in  any  instance,  resort  must  be  had  to  a  motive  so  far 
down  the  scale  that  it  will  meet  the  child's  present 
needs,  and  receive  from  him  a  vigorous  response. 

During  all  this  time  the  child  should  be  taught  the 


86  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

reasons  for  the  course  which  he  is  directed  to  follow. 
Thus  he  will  be  educated  to  act  in  the  light  of  reason, 
rather  than  from  the  simple  matter  of  feeling.  It  is 
not  meant  that  we  should  permit  the  child  to  argue 
when  he  is  directed  to  act,  and  that  we  should  give  him 
our  reasons  as  a  condition  of  receiving  his  obedience. 
Rather,  he  should  obey  because  a  righteous  authority 
has  directed  him  to  do  so ;  and,  when  he  has  obeyed,  as 
well  as  at  times  when  no  commands  have  been  issued, 
we  should  educate  him  to  know  the  reasons  that  guide 
our  course.  This  will  usually  be  found  to  be  the  only 
wise  corrective  for  what  is  called  a  "  self-willed  child." 
It  would  be  possible  to  make  such  a  child  yield  to 
superior  force,  but  then  we  arouse  in  him  all  the  bitter 
feelings  of  antagonism  which  he  can  command ;  and, 
when  the  force  is  even  momentarily  withdrawn,  he  re- 
bounds to  his  evil  course  as  a  bow  that  has  been  drawn. 
We  have  produced  no  charge  in  the  enlightenment  of 
the  child,  and  he  is  as  much  bound  as  ever  to  have  his 
own  way,  regardless  of  the  cost  to  others  or  of  the 
sacrifice  of  his  own  reason.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
apply  superior  force  in  order  to  get  him  to  listen  to 
reason,  but  we  should  regard  our  task  as  only  just 
begun  when  we  have  him  at  that  point.  Breaking  the 
will  might  possibly  produce  a  manageable  slave,  cower- 
ing under  the  lash  of  a  hard  taskmaster ;  but  only  the 
enlightenment  of  the  will  can  make  a  free  man. 

In  all  the  development  of  the  will,  whether  it  be  in 
forming  the  habit  of  earnest  application  or  in  strength- 
ening the  power  of  self-control,  there  is  no  more  potent 
factor  than  personal  example.  Children  are  quite  ready 


THE    WILL.  S/ 

readers  of  human  character ;  and,  when  they  see  their 
elders  prospering,  either  in  the  midst  of  a  life  of  idle- 
ness or  a  life  of  self-indulgence,  they  are  likely  to 
argue  that,  if  success  and  satisfaction  in  life  can  be 
secured  at  so  small  a  cost,  there  is  not  much  use  of 
their  paying  a  higher  price  for  them.  Upon  the  teacher, 
then,  rests,  in  an  especial  manner,  the  responsibility  of 
living  and  acting  in  such  a  way  that  the  children,  tak- 
ing their  pattern  from  him,  will  employ  their  wills  always 
in  response  to  an  enlightened  reason,  and  thus  develop 
within  themselves  that  power  which  can  shape  their 
destiny. 


88  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 


CHAPTER    IX. 
ATTENTION. 

IF  by  a  faculty  we  mean  the  soul's  capacity  or  ability 
to  do  a  distinct  kind  of  work,  it  is  evident  that  atten- 
tion should  not  be  classed  as  a  faculty.  There  is  no 
new  kind  of  work  involved  in  an  exercise  of  attention ; 
it  is  simply  a  name  for  an  especial  manner  of  doing  the 
various  forms  of  work  already  indicated.  We  cannot 
perceive,  remember,  imagine,  and  think,  and,  in  addition 
to  all  these,  give  attention.  To  attend  is  rather  to  do 
any  of  these  others  with  care.  To  attend  to  the  note  of 
a  bird  means  to  listen  to  it  with  care,  —  put  effort  and 
thought  into  the  listening.  To  attend  to  a  lesson  means 
to  look  at  what  is  presented  in  it,  listen  to  what  is  said 
about  it,  think  about  what  is  involved  in  it,  and  do 
all  these  things  with  care  and  energy.  Each  of  the 
intellectual  faculties  furnishes  its  own  peculiar  type  of 
knowledge  ;  attention  furnishes  nothing  new  as  they  do. 
If  we  are  not  engaged  in  earnest  with  anything,  if  we 
do  not  look,  listen,  think,  imagine,  or  exercise  any  of 
our  powers  with  a  measurable  degree  of  concentration, 
we  are  not  exercising  attention.  If  we  do  focus  our 
consciousness  through  the  avenue  of  any  of  the  faculties, 
we  are  exercising  attention.  Attention  is  thus  seen  to 
be  rather  a  condition  under  which  the  faculties  may 
operate  than  a  separate  faculty.  But,  if  attention  is 
not  to  be  classed  as  a  faculty,  it  is  so  important  as  an 


ATTENTION.  89 

element  in  learning  that  it  can  with  profit  engage  our 
thought  in  this  place. 

It  is  customary  to  divide  attention  into  two  classes  or 
phases  called  reflex  or  non-voluntary  attention  and  vol- 
untary attention.  The  reflex  form  is  that  which  is  drawn 
from  us  as  a  nervous  response  to  a  stimulus  from  without, 
and  is  dependent  chiefly  upon  some  element  within  the 
thing  to  which  attention  is  given.  As  would  naturally 
be  expected,  therefore,  it  is  flitting,  changeable,  uncertain, 
—  a  sort  of  butterfly  activity.  It  is  to  be  expected  in 
children  ;  and,  when  it  predominates  and  is  developed, 
it  accounts  for  the  need  of  a  large  and  varied  assort- 
ment of  playthings  for  the  nursery.  Little  and  unim- 
portant things  have  some  attraction,  but  it  is  only  for  a 
moment,  and  then  they  must  be  dismissed  to  make  way 
for  others,  and  thus  a  constant  round  of  newness  is 
kept  up.  Clearly,  then,  whoever  would  rely  upon  the 
non-voluntary  attention  of  his  pupils  as  the  way  to  suc- 
cessful teaching  must  surround  himself  with  an  almost 
endless  array  of  attractive  and  varied  devices,  and  de- 
velop within  himself  great  skill  in  their  use.  But  he 
must  also  expect,  if  this  is  relied  upon  exclusively,  to 
have  as  the  result  of  his  labors  a  class  of  young  people 
contented  only  when  attracted,  unfitted  for  the  sterner 
requirements  of  life,  and  unmoved  by  anything  like  the 
imperatives  of  duty. 

The  voluntary  attention  is  that  which  is  given  by  us 
to  an  object  of  our  choice,  and  which  is  not  primarily 
dependent  upon  any  element  within  the  thing  attended 
to,  but,  rather,  upon  our  own  effort.  From  this  we  can 
readily  judge  that  it  is  permanent,  certain,  and  capable 


QO  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

of  giving  a  stability  to  character  which  difficulties  cannot 
easily  baffle.  This  type  of  attention  is  to  be  looked  for 
only  in  those  of  developed  strength,  and  is  rather  an  end 
to  be  secured  by  our  teaching  than  a  condition  to  be 
expected  in  the  child.  It  is  this  more  than  any  other 
endowment  that  distinguishes  the  man  of  genius  from 
the  ordinary  man.  It  is  this  phase  of  attention  that  we 
should  strive  to  develop  through  our  teaching.  Indeed, 
the  results  of  developed  reflex  attention  are  so  unsatis- 
factory, they  give  to  the  individual  so  little  command  of 
himself  and  make  him  so  unfitted  to  command  others, 
they  rob  him  so  completely  of  his  proper  independence 
and  force  him  to  rely  so  much  upon  circumstances,  that 
it  seems  an  unwise  use  of  terms  to  call  it  attention  ; 
because  whatever  is  done  to.  strengthen  within  a  person 
the  habit  of  non-voluntary  attention  and  to  encourage 
him  to  rest  in  it,  is  just  so  much  toward  erecting  a  bar- 
rier in  the  way  of  that  strength  and  force  of  character 
which  mark  the  person  of  developed  voluntary  attention. 
We  are  naturally  attracted  to  some  things  and  not  to 
others,  and,  as  our  minds  are  habitually  active,  we  may 
expect  them  to  act  in  the  line  of  these  attractions.  It 
is  proper  that  we  should  make  use  of  such  tendencies,  in 
selecting  material  that  shall  win  to  study  and  effort  as 
against  idleness  and  indifference ;  but  we  should  remem- 
ber that  these  are  only  expedients  justified  by  circum- 
stances, and  not  conditions  to  be  developed.  If  we  can 
develop  within  a  child  the  determination  to  conquer,  and 
we  can  do  so  by  means  of  a  pleasure  that  will  overcome 
inertia  and  arouse  activity,  we  are  justified  in  employ- 
ing the  pleasure ;  but  we  must  guard  carefully  against 


ATTENTION.  9! 

making  pleasure  the  sole  condition  of  activity.  The 
pupil  who  can  by  force  of  will  direct  his  thought  to  that 
which  should  be  done,  whether  it  is  pleasant  to  do  or 
not,  is  the  pupil  who  is  fitted  to  succeed  in  life.  The 
one  who  through  habit  must  permit  his  thought  to  be 
swayed  to  and  fro,  because  of  winning  elements  that 
appear  in  his  environment,  is  a  slave  to  circumstances. 
He  does  not  yet  know  what  freedom  is.  It  is  not  meant 
by  this  that  we  should  resist  things  simply  because  they 
are  interesting ;  that  which  interests  and  attracts  us 
may  be  a  very  proper  object  of  voluntary  attention. 
But  it  is  meant  to  teach  that  we  are  not  to  refuse  atten- 
tion to  things  because  they  fail  to  present  elements  of 
interest. 

With  the  mind  thoughtfully  centered  upon  an  object  of 
study,  elements  previously  unseen  will  be  made  to  ap- 
pear ;  about  these,  new  interests  will  center  ;  and  thus  it 
is  seen  that  well-directed  attention  develops  interest. 
It  is  generally  found  true  that  the  person  most  vitally 
interested  in  any  department  of  learning  is  the  person 
who  has  most  fully  mastered  it.  What  we  know  best 
we  are  usually  most  interested  in,  and  that  not  because 
the  interest  is  primal,  but  because,  having  given  the  sub- 
ject our  undivided  attention,  we  have  been  rewarded 
with  the  knowledge  and  with  the  accompanying  interest. 
It  is  true  that  we  ought  not  to  expect  from  children 
undivided  attention  to  that  which  continues  uninterest- 
ing ;  but  we  should  expect  them  to  strive,  because  the 
thing  is  present  to  be  done,  and,  having  the  will  thus 
wisely  exercised,  we  may  add  to  the  employment  all  the 
joy  and  hopefulness  that  we  can.  But  let  us  remember 


92  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

that  the  most  lasting  joy  is  the  joy  of  overcoming 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  our  growth,  and  the  most  buoy- 
ant hopefulness  is  that  which  results  from  the  conscious- 
ness of  a  deserved  supremacy.  A  reasonable  inference 
from  this  is,  that  we  should  so  gauge  the  capacity  of  the 
learner  and  the  difficulty  of  the  assigned  task  that  we 
will  not  demand  the  impossible  or  the  too  difficult ; 
another  is,  that  we  should  resort  to  artificial  attractions 
only  when  the  attention  cannot  be  sufficiently  aroused 
by  the  natural  attraction  which  attends  mastered  diffi- 
culties. 

One  other  item  of  great  moment  deserves  specific 
treatment  in  the  discussion  of  attention.  It  is  mind- 
wandering.  This  is  the  condition  that  exists  whenever 
a  person,  presumably  engaged  in  some  serious  occupa- 
tion, awakes  to  find  that  he  has  not  been  thinking  about 
that  which  he  seems  to  have  been  doing,  but  has  been 
following  a  train  of  thought  that  simply  happened  to 
cross  his  mind.  Persons  with  whom  such  practices  have 
become  habitual  often  deplore  the  fact  and  wish  them- 
selves well  rid  of  the  habit,  but  the  methods  they  pursue 
tend  constantly  to  strengthen  the  disposition,  even  while 
they  are  lamenting  their  bondage.  They  begin  a  study  ; 
they  pass  with  success  over  several  pages  ;  at  last  the 
act  of  turning  to  the  next  page  arouses  them,  and  they 
discover  that  they  know  nothing  of  what  they  seemed  to 
be  looking  at  upon  the  previous  page.  What,  now,  is 
the  ordinary  manner  of  treating  themselves  ?  Too  fre- 
quently it  is  to  allow  the  usurping  train  of  thought  to  be 
indulged  in  till  it  has  been  finished ;  then  they  leisurely 
betake  themselves  to  the  task  which  ought  never  to 


ATTENTION.  93 

have  been  dismissed,  and  congratulate  themselves  because 
they  have  not  abandoned  it  entirely.  The  better  way, 
indeed,  the  only  way,  to  effectually  correct  mind-wander- 
ing is  to  apply  a  more  vigorous  remedy  at  one  particular 
point.  Just  as  soon  as  the  person  becomes  aware  of  the 
fact  that  his  mind  is  not  upon  that  which  he  seems  to 
be  doing,  he  should  check  himself.  This  may  require 
severe  measures,  but  it  is  well  worth  the  effort.  He 
should  use  any  expedient  at  his  command,  but  by  all 
means  he  should  stop  himself  before  the  intruding  train 
of  thought  has  been  carried  to  its  issue.  Let  him  close 
his  eyes,  clench  his  fists,  change  his  bodily  attitude,  utter 
aloud  each  word  upon  the  page  before  him,  point  the 
finger  with  energy  upon  each  word  as  he  says  it  —  in 
short,  resort  to  any  reasonable  device  for  keeping  him- 
self at  the  assigned  task  till  it  is  finished.  Then,  if  he 
wishes,  he  may  take  up  the  line  of  thought  that  was 
suggested,  but  not  before.  This  does  not  mean  that  we 
are  never  to  allow  ourselves  the  pleasure  of  leisurely 
following  our  trains  of  suggested  thoughts  ;  that  may  be 
a  very  pleasant  and  harmless  pastime.  But  it  does  mean 
that  we  should  absolutely  never  give  way  to  intruding 
lines  of  suggestion,  which  cross  our  course  when  we  are 
engaged  in  serious  study.  It  is  the  habit  of  undivided 
attention  that  we  should  seek  to  cultivate,  and  the  pupil 
who  allows  distracting  elements  to  intrude,  even  to  the 
extent  of  interrupting  his  study  by  habitually  turning 
the  head  to  see  who  is  entering  a  room,  is  thereby  rob- 
bing himself  of  a  strength  which  he  might  possess. 

What,  now,  are  the  specific  guides  for  the  culture  of 
this  important  power  of  attention  ? 


94  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

1.  Vary  the  work  so  as  not  to  produce  unnecessary 
weariness.     For  any  one  set  of   pupils   have   memory 
studies,    art    studies,    reasoning    studies,   etc.,    properly 
alternated. 

2.  Let  periods  of  study  alternate  with  periods  of  phys- 
ical and  mental  freedom.     Whenever  the  child  studies, 
encourage  him  to  work  with  energy ;  then  afford   him 
proper  time  to  cease  work  entirely.     Do  not  customarily 
allow   work    to    continue    and    drag   along    indefinitely. 
Short  and  decisive  periods  of  work  followed  by  definite 
periods  of  complete  relaxation  will  strengthen  the  power 
and  the  habit  of  attention. 

3.  If  signs  of  ill  health   or  overwork  are  observed, 
relieve  the  pupil  or  remove  him  for  the  time  from  the 
scene  of  intense  mental  activity.     This  applies  especially 
to  the  child  about  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age,  who 
is  easily  affected  by  nervous  disorders,  and  particularly 
so  if  he  is  found  to  have  any  physical  weakness  or  if  his 
normal  growth  is  suddenly  hindered.     Intense  effort  at 
this  time  is  likely  to  prove  detrimental  to  the  child's 
later  well-being. 

4.  Afford  all  possible  occasions  for  the  child  to   use 
his  new  knowledge.     When  the  child  can  be  led  to  see 
that  what  he  is  learning  fits  him  for  the  things  older 
people  do,  it  will  give  to  his  studies  new  interests  and 
will  encourage  attention. 

5.  So  prepare  for  your  teaching  that  you  can   gen- 
erally be  free  from  the  text-book  or  other  aids  while  be- 
fore your  class.     This  freedom  will  arouse  the  pupil's 
confidence  and  encourage  him  to  a  like  strength  and  in- 
dependence.    Pupils  will  not  generally  attend  to   that 
which  they  are  led  to  think  is  not  worth  while* 


ATTENTION.  95 

6.  Frequently  resort  to  competitive  exercises  such  as 
will   tax  the  powers  of  pupils.     Let  these  be  opportu- 
nities for  tests  of  strength  rather  than  required  duties. 
They  may  be  made  up  of  difficult  mathematical  prob- 
lems, pronunciation,  spelling,  etc. 

7.  In   teaching  make    your  statements  so  clear  and 
definite  that  the  pupil  need  not   be  perplexed  and  dis- 
turbed by  words.     Mental  confusion  leads  to  hopeless- 
ness, and  in  children  it  will  soon  paralyze  effort. 

8.  Special  drill  exercises  for  the  culture  of  attention 
may  be  used  with  profit.     The  following  will  be  found 
valuable  :  Rapid  work  in  the  simpler  parts  of  arithmetic, 
such    as    addition,    subtraction,   multiplication,    division, 
fractions,  etc.  ;  spelling  by  having  each  child  in  succes- 
sion name  one  letter  of  the  word  ;  pronouncing  sentences 
or  lists  of  unrelated  words,  and  having  children  repro- 
duce them  orally  or  in  writing  (such  sentences  or  lists  of 
words  must  be  quite  short    at    first    and  be   gradually 
lengthened)  ;  presenting  complicated  objects  or  sets  of 
objects  for  a  very  brief  period  of  time  and  having  pupils 
name  all  they  can  see  ;  performing  before  the  class  some 
action  which  will  require  voice,  hands,  feet,    etc.,  and 
having  children  describe  fully  what  they  have  observed. 
Such  exercises  should  not  be  kept  up  longer  than  two  or 
three  minutes  at  a  time,  and  should  be  done  with  all  the 
force  the  child  can  summon.     If  it  is  made  to  appear  as 
a  game,  the  best  results  will  generally  be  secured.     It  is 
wise  for  the  teacher  to  keep  an  exact  record  of  the  best 
the  class  can  do  in  the  several  exercises,  and  at  inter- 
vals to  note  their  progress. 

9.  When  the  class  specially  needs  training  along  the 


g  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

line  of  attention,  let  the  teacher  ask  questions  before 
naming  the  one  who  is  to  recite.  This  demands  a  like 
effort  from  all,  but  is  a  useless  tax  upon  the  energies  of 
children  if  invariably  used  when  the  class  is  attentive 
without  it. 

10.  Be  careful  not  to  divert  the  child's  thought  from 
the  real  purpose  of  the  lesson.  Teaching  by  experiment 
or  other  illustration  sometimes  draws  the  child's  thought 
away  from  the  truth  to  be  impressed  and  rivets  it  upon 
the  sound  or  flash  or  other  attraction  in  the  experiment. 
He  is  giving  attention,  but  it  is  to  the  wrong  thing. 


PART  II. 
GENERAL   PHILOSOPHY  OF   METHOD. 


CHAPTER    X. 
THE   NOTION,   OR  CONCEPT. 

IN  the  order  of  reality  as  it  is  found  in  the  world,  the 
units  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  "  things."  These  may 
be  material  bodies,  immaterial  relations  and  forces,  or 
even  states  of  mind.  These  realities  or  things  about 
which  we  are  said  to  think  are  always  single  and  con- 
crete —  exist  as  individuals.  But  these  individuals  pos- 
sess likenesses  which  serve  as  the  basis  of  what  are 
termed  "  classes."  These  classes  do  not  exist  above  the 
things  as  something  superior  to  them,  nor  are  they  in 
any  way  separated  from  them  ;  in  so  far  as  they  can 
be  said  to  exist  at  all,  they  exist  in  the  things  which 
are  spoken  of  as  members  of  the  class.  It  is  well  for 
the  student  to  learn  at  the  outset  that  classes  are  not 
things  in  the  sense  that  individuals  are,  and  that  classes 
do  not  exist  in  the  same  manner  in  which  things  are 
said  to  exist.  It  is  not  possible  to  find  in  the  world  of 
realities  this  horse,  that  horse,  and  the  other  horse,  and, 
side  by  side  with  these,  horse  in  general.  But,  though 
classes  have  no  such  separate  existence  as  things  have, 
they  are  real.,  The  class  is  merely  the  sum  total  of  the 

97 


98  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

similar  individuals  which  compose  it,  considered  in  their 
related  character. 

The  human  intellect  can  be  exercised,  therefore,  only 
in  connection  with  truth  considered  either  in  reference 
to  individual  realities,  or  in  reference  to  classes  as  above 
described.  If  this  mental  activity  is  put  forth  simply  to 
represent  single  things  or  classes  of  things,  the  product 
is  called  an  idea,  a  notion,  or  a  concept.  Now,  in  form- 
ing these  notions,  we  may  represent  the  individual  and 
its  constituent  parts,  to  the  neglect  of  the  class  idea,  and 
the  product  is  called  an  individual  notion,  an  individual 
concept,  or  an  image.  Again,  we  may  dwell  upon  the 
likenesses  among  the  individuals  of  a  class  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  lose  sight  of  the  peculiarities  of  these  indi- 
viduals ;  in  this  case  we  are  emphasizing  the  class  idea, 
and  the  product  is  called  a  general  notion  or  general  con- 
cept. In  language  each  of  these  notions  is  expressed  by 
words  or  by  phrases,  but  not  by  sentences. 

If  the  word  or  phrase  stands  for  a  single  thing,  as 
Julius  Caesar,  this  block,  Pennsylvania,  that  kind  act  of 
A.,  it  names  an  individual  notion. 

If  the  word  or  phrase  stands  for  a  class  of  things,  as 
man,  block,  state,  the  kindness  of  man,  it  names  a  gen- 
eral notion. 

But  we  are  able  to  do  more  than  merely  represent 
mentally  either  single  things  or  classes.  We  are  able  to 
compare  the  clearly  formed  notions  with  each  other,  and 
the  product  of  this  comparison,  or  noting  of  relations,  is 
called  a  judgment.  In  language  the  judgment  is  ex- 
pressed by  a  sentence.  The  treatment  of  judgments 
will  be  postponed  to  a  later  section  (see  page  117). 


THE    NOTION,    OR    CONCEPT.  99 

In  order  to  add  clearness  to  this  discussion  we  will 
examine  the  different  mental  faculties  which  are  em- 
ployed in  producing  notions,  and  thus  learn  which  type 
of  notion  each  faculty  is  capable  of  producing. 

1.  When  I  think  about  any  matter,  as  a  problem  in 
arithmetic,   a   pleasant   excursion,   the  weather,  or   the 
righteousness  of  my  own  desires,  I  am  able  to  know  that 
thinking  is  what  is  taking  place  at  the  time  ;  as  I  have 
experiences  of  sadness  or  joy,  of  hope  or  fear,  of  pity  or 
contempt,  or  any  other  form  of  feeling,  I  am  immediately 
aware  of  it  ;  if  my  will  is  exercised  either  in  directing 
action  or  in  preventing  it,  that  also  is  known  to  me  at 
the  time.     The  power  we  all  possess  of  thus  knowing 
our  own  states  of  mind  is  called  by  many  consciousness. 
All  that  we  can  be  conscious  of  at  any  given  time  is  the 
actual  mental  state  present    at    that    time.     Conscious 
suffering  must  be  actual  suffering.     Consciousness  of  a 
mental  power  can  mean  nothing  except  when  the  power 
is  in  exercise.     Consciousness  does  not  reveal  to  man 
the  meaning  of  any  mental  state,  its  significance  in  terms 
of  a  world  of  things  ;  it  reports  to  him  the  existence  of  a 
certain  mental  state  as  a  fact  of  his  personal  experience, 
and  that  fact,  not  its  significance,  is  the  object  of  knowl- 
edge.    This  being  true,  it  is  evident  that  consciousness 
gives  to  us  only  individual  notions. 

2.  Besides  the  world  of  ideas  known  in  consciousness, 
there  is  also   a  world  of  material  things  that   may  be 
known.     Objects  that  are  about  us  affect  our  organs  of 
sense,  and  thus  produce  in  us  states  of  mind  called  sen- 
sations.   Perception  is  the  power  we  have  ot  interpreting 
the  raw  materials  of  sensation  and  thus  of  knowing  a 


IOO  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

world  of  things  immediately  present  to  our  senses.  But, 
since  only  individuals  exist  in  the  world  of  things,  the 
knowledge  thus  acquired  is  of  individuals  only,  never  of 
classes,  and  hence  perception  furnishes  us  the  individual 
notion.  By  this  it  is  not  meant  that  we  can  thoroughly 
know  individuals  without  any  reference  to  the  correspond- 
ing class  ideas  ;  the  interpretation  of  a  sense  impression 
requires  the*  use  of  our  class  notions.  But  since  the 
entire  mind  is  active  in  all  mental  activities,  we  name  each 
act  by  naming  the  dominant  phase  in  it ;  and,  since  that 
which  occupies  the  center  of  attention  is  that  to  which 
the  mind  is  said  to  be  predominantly  directed,  we  speak 
of  knowing  through  any  process  that  which  is  the  center 
of  our  effort,  no  matter  how  many  aids  we  may  summon 
in  the  effort.  In  order  to  know  the  object  before  me  as 
a  pear,  I  must  call  into  service  my  general  notion  of 
pear,  and  interpret,  in  the  light  of  that  notion,  the  vari- 
ous impressions  received  from  this  one  object.  But  still, 
in  seeing  a  pear,  my  attention  is  directed  less  to  the 
notions  within  my  mind  and  more  to  the  object  which  is 
said  to  be  affecting  my  mind ;  less  to  the  various  pro- 
cesses involved  in  the  complex  act  of  knowing  and  more 
to  the  thing  known,  —  the  individual  pear.  Thus  we  are 
justified  in  saying  that  perception  deals  only  with  indi- 
viduals, and  hence  furnishes  us  individual  notions. 

3.  All  the  ideas  of  the  mind  may  be  reproduced,  and, 
when  reproduced,  they  may  be  recognized.  This  power 
to  recognize  objects  and  ideas,  or  to  know  them  again  as 
having  been  known  before,  is  called  memory.  Since 
the  memory  is  a  faculty  which  does  not  acquire  new 
truth,  but  merely  recognizes  the  old  when  it  is  repro- 


THE    NOTION,    OR    CONCEPT.  IOI 

duced,  we  need  not  consider  the  type  of  notion  with 
which  it  deals.  It  is  concerned  with  the  reinstated  no- 
tions from  all  the  other  faculties. 

4.  In   consciousness   and   in    perception    the   things 
known  are  present,  and  are  immediately  affecting  the 
mind  which  knows  them.     But  in  our  knowing  we  are  not 
confined  to  the  things  which  may  be  immediately  recog- 
nized ;  our  knowledge  can   extend  to  things  which  do 
not  affect  our  senses  at  the  time,  and  which  are  therefore 
said  to  be  absent  from  us.     Following  an  accurate  verbal 
description  we  may,  by  combining  the  elements  of  past 
experiences,  come  to  know  things  which  we  have  never 
witnessed,  —  the  customs  of  a  foreign  people,  the  archi- 
tecture of  a  great  city,  the  landscape  in  a  distant  clime, 
etc.     But  even  this  is  not  the  end.     That  which  does 
not  really  exist  can,  by  virtue  of  this  power  to  combine 
old  mental  elements  into  new  mental  wholes,  be  antici- 
pated in  thought,  and  when  this  thought  becomes  actu- 
alized in  a  thing,  we  have  the  product  of  man's  invention. 
This  power  which  the  soul  possesses  of  combining  old 
ideas  into  new  wholes  is   called    imagination.     But,  as 
the  product  of  imagination  is  always  a  definite  mental 
picture,  and  as  such  pictures  are  always  the  representa- 
tives of  single  things  (never  of  classes),  the  imagination 
furnishes  only  individual  notions. 

5.  But  one  other  mental  faculty  concerned  in  the  for- 
mation of  notions  remains  to  be  considered  ;  that  is  the 
faculty  of  thought.     As  we  learned  in  a  previous  chap- 
ter, there  are  three    stages    of   thought,  —  conception, 
judgment,  and  reasoning,  —  which  give  us  three  products 
of  varying  complexity.     But  as  only  one  of  these,  con- 


102  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

ception,  is  employed  in  representing  reality,  while  the 
other  two  stages  unfold  truths  about  reality,  we  shall 
occupy  ourselves  in  this  place  with  the  first  only.  It  is 
not  to  be  understood  that  these  three  operations  are 
carried  on  separately,  that  conception  as  an  activity  is 
completed  and  that  judgment  then  begins.  Rather,  we 
think  j  and  in  the  process  the  predominant  element,  no 
matter  how  many  adjuncts  have  been  used,  is  the  for- 
mation of  a  notion ;  this  act  we  call  conceiving,  and  the 
power  or  faculty  we  call  conception.  Again,  we  think, 
and,  in  the  process,  the  predominant  element  is  the 
comparing  of  concepts  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce 
a  thought  which  is  capable  of  being  expressed  in  a 
sentence ;  this  act  of  thought  we  call  judging,  and  the 
product  secured,  as  well  as  the  power  to  secure  it,  we 
call  judgment.  In  any  concrete  thought  experience 
carried  on  for  a  definite  time,  it  is  not  possible  to  tell 
just  what  part  of  it  is  conceiving  and  what  part  is  judg- 
ing ;  we  can  separate  these  only  by  an  arbitrary  mental 
analysis  of  experience,  just  as  in  fact  it  is  not  possible 
to  separate  the  form  and  the  color  of  the  object  before 
me,  though  I  can  think  of  them  as  if  they  did  exist 
apart.  In  the  third  place,  we  think,  and  the  predominant 
element  is  the  comparing  of  judgments  in  such  a  way 
as  to  produce  another  thought  capable  again  of  being 
expressed  in  a  sentence ;  this  act  of  thought,  which 
consists  in  the  comparison  of  judgments,  we  call  reason- 
ing. But  all  that  directly  concerns  us  for  the  present 
is  this  simplest  form  of  thought,  that  which  is  employed 
in  representing  reality,  but  is  not  concerned  in  unfold- 
ing truths  about  reality. 


THE    NOTION,    OR    CONCEPT.  IC«3 

In  returning  from  this  seeming  digression,  which  is 
intended  to  clear  the  way  for  future  discussion  by  an- 
ticipating difficulties  sure  to  arise  in  practice,  let  me 
repeat,  that  any  mental  content  which  serves  to  represent 
realities,  either  as  individuals  or  in  classes,  is  called  a 
notion  or  concept.  If  this  mental  content  is  made  to 
represent  a  single  thing,  if  it  is  a  definite  mental  image 
of  either  perception  or  imagination,  it  is  called  an  indi- 
vidual notion  or  individual  concept.  If  it  is  made  to 
represent  a  class  of  things,  if  it  is  not  reducible  to  a 
single  definite  mental  image,  it  is  called  a  general  notion 
or  general  concept.  The  mental  faculty  required  for 
the  production  of  such  general  notions  or  general  con- 
cepts is  thought,  but  thought  in  the  capacity  of  con- 
ception. 

But  even  though  general  concepts  are  not  definite 
mental  images,  there  is  a  pronounced  tendency  on  the 
part  of  learners  to  represent  them  by  images.  This 
tendency  arises  doubtless  from  the  fact  that  so  much  of 
our  mental  habit  has  been  developed  in  imaging  single 
things,  and  also  from  the  fact  that  it  is  easier  to  let  an 
image  stand  for  a  class  in  a  vague  sort  of  way  than  it  is 
to  think  the  class  comprehensively.  Accordingly,  when 
a  class  name  like  horse  is  mentioned  and  our  minds  are 
allowed  to  dwell  upon  what  it  signifies,  we  have  a  series 
of  images  of  individual  horses  pass  before  our  minds. 
These  represent  horses  which  differ  in  color,  size,  atti- 
tudes, etc.,  and  yet  with  each  image  comes  the  distinct 
feeling  of  its  inadequacy  as  a  representative  of  the 
class.  Rather  we  feel  that  it  takes  them  all,  and  more 
than  we  have  time  for,  to  represent  the  meaning  of  the 


IO4  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

word  horse.  In  this  we  find  that  in  a  vague  and  in- 
definite way  we  are  attending  to  the  elements  of  simi- 
larity in  our  images,  and  are  ignoring  the  qualities  that 
do  not  count  for  anything  in  the  make-up  of  the  sig- 
nificance of  horse. 

Since  this  tendency  is  so  strong  in  us  all,  the  best  we 
can  do  is  to  aid  the  learner  in  directing  his  attention  to 
the  marks  of  similarity  in  his  mental  images,  and  not  to 
whatever  peculiarities  may  happen  to  strike  his  fancy. 
In  this  the  teacher  will  gain  a  great  advantage  by  using 
what  may  be  called  the  exact  concepts,  —  those  made  up 
of  attributes  fully  and  distinctly  known,  such  as  triangle, 
square,  etc.  We  know  just  the  elements  that  enter  into 
the  notion,  and  hence  into  the  definition,  of  square  and 
of  triangle.  We  can  definitely  enumerate  all  these  for 
the  learner  and  direct  his  attention  away  from  size,  posi- 
tion, etc.,  which  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the 
formation  of  the  real  meaning  of  the  word.  By  using 
these  exact  mathematical  concepts  as  the  means  of 
showing  him  what  he  should  strive  after  in  thinking  the 
concept,  we  prepare  him  for  dealing  with  the  larger 
class  of  inexact  concepts,  —  those  made  up  of  attributes 
that  are  not  fully  and  distinctly  known,  but  that  can  be 
only  vaguely  approximated,  such  as  house,  book,  pleas- 
ure, etc. 

Definition  and  Description  Distinguished. 

The  distinction  between  exact  and  inexact  concepts 
affords  an  opportunity  to  emphasize  the  difference  be- 
tween logical  definition  and  mere  description.  Both  of 


THE    NOTION,    OR    CONCEPT.  105 

these  are  valuable,  but  they  should  not  be  confused.  A 
definition  notes  all  the  essential  marks  of  a  thing,  and 
only  these ;  it  is  designed  to  settle  a  thing  in  its  com- 
pass and  extent.  Thus  we  can  clearly  define  the  exact 
concepts  because  we  know  exactly  what  the  qualities 
are  that  enter  into  their  formation  ;  as,  a  square  is  a 
plane  figure  bounded  by  four  equal  sides  and  having 
four  right  angles.  But  when  we  endeavor  to  give  verbal 
expression  to  the  inexact  concepts,  such  as  house,  pin, 
jar,  etc.,  we  find  it  impossible  to  distinguish  between  the 
essential  and  the  non-essential  qualities  ;  hence  complete 
definitions  cannot  be  given.  For  all  such,  then,  the 
best  we  can  do  is  to  describe  them  as  accurately  as  pos- 
sible. A  description  is  not  limited  to  an  enumeration 
of  only  the  essential  marks  of  a  thing,  but  it  may  take 
larger  liberties  and  emphasize  oddities.  It  "  enters  into 
striking  particulars  with  a  view  to  interest  or  impress  by 
graphic  effect."  It  is  well  for  teachers  to  keep  this  dis- 
tinction clearly  in  mind,  and  not  endeavor  to  secure 
exact  definition  where  only  a  description  is  possible; 
neither  should  they  generally  be  content  with  an  approx- 
imate description  where  the  exactness  of  definition  is 
attainable. 


Content  and  Extent  of  Notions. 

Clearness  of  great  pedagogical  value  will  be  added  to 
this  discussion  if  we  distinguish  between  the  content 
and  the  extent  of  our  class  notions,  or  general  concepts. 
It  is  evident  that  when  I  use  the  word  quadrilateral  I 
may  think  either  of  the  appropriate  four-sided  geomet- 


IO6  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

rical  figures,  which  I  can  picture  in  great  number  and 
variety,  or  of  the  quality  of  four-sidedness  which  belongs 
to  certain  geometrical  figures.  In  the  first  case  my 
mind  is  directed  to  the  individual  things  which  possess 
the  qualities  entitling  them  to  be  called  quadrilaterals ; 
in  the  other  case  my  mind  is  directed  to  the  qualities 
which  the  word  quadrilateral  really  means,  and,  on  ac- 
count of  the  possession  of  which,  any  figure  is  called  a 
quadrilateral.  In  the  first  case  my  mind  dwells  upon 
the  extent  of  the  class  term  quadrilateral ;  in  the  second 
case,  upon  the  content  of  the  class  term.  Since  a  con- 
cept or  general  notion  is  the  mental  content  which  an- 
swers to  a  class  of  things,  and  a  class  term  is  the  word 
which  symbolizes  both  the  class  of  things  and  the  cor- 
responding concept,  we  may  speak  without  distinction 
of  the  content  and  extent  of  a  class  term  or  of  a  con- 
cept; accordingly, 

The  content  of  a  class  term  is  the  sum  of  attributes 
which  things  must  possess  in  order  that  they  may  be 
designated  by  the  word  in  question. 

The  extent  of  a  class  term  is  the  entire  set  of  indi- 
vidual things  to  which  the  word  is  applied.  The  reason 
why  a  class  term  is  applicable  to  some  individuals  and 
not  to  others  is  because  the  former  ones  each  possess 
the  attributes  which  constitute  the  content  of  the  class 
term  or  word,  and  the  latter  ones  do  not. 

The  word  square  signifies  (in  extent)  this,  that,  and 
the  other  plane  figure  possessing  four  equal  sides  and 
four  right  angles.  It  signifies  (in  content)  the  following 
attributes  :  plane  figure,  fourness  of  sides  and  angles, 
equality  of  sides  and  Tightness  of  angles. 


THE    NOTION,    OR    CONCEPT. 

When  the  meaning  of  any  word  is  being  developed  it 
is  important  for  the  teacher  to  know  whether  the  child 
is  thinking  of  its  content  or  of  its  extent.  In  order  to 
get  the  real  significance  of  a  word  he  must,  of  course, 
dwell  upon  the  content ;  but  in  order  to  be  able  to  apply 
it  intelligently,  he  must  be  able  to  think  of  the  individuals 
to  which  it  rightly  belongs,  —  its  extent.  Errors  may 
arise  from  the  child's  getting  his  notions  either  too  com- 
prehensive or  not  comprehensive  enough  in  content,  as 
well  as  either  too  wide  or  too  narrow  in  extent.  If  a 
child  who  has  seen  only  red  roses  hears  the  word,  rose, 
applied  to  them  until  he  associates  the  word  with 
these  red  objects,  he  will  get  a  notion  that  is  too  com- 
prehensive in  content,  because  it  includes  the  element 
redness,  and  this  element  of  a  particular  color  does  not 
belong  to  roses.  If  a  child  has  learned  to  associate  the 
word,  square,  with  a  four-sided  figure  that  has  right 
angles,  it  is  evident  that  this  notion  of  square  is  lacking 
in  content,  because  it  fails  to  embrace  the  necessary 
element  of  equality  of  sides.  Because  of  this  omission, 
the  word,  square,  would  be  used  by  him  in  reference  to 
all  rectangles,  and  would,  therefore,  lead  to  numerous 
errors.  If  a  child  comprehends  all  men  in  the  word, 
papa,  it  is  evident  that  his  attention  is  directed  to  the 
extent  of  the  word,  and  his  notion  of  papa  is  too  wide  in 
extent.  If  he  denies  to  certain  men  the  title,  man,  de- 
claring, "  You  not  man  ;  papa  man,"  it  is  clear  that  his 
notion  of  man  is  too  narrow  in  extent.  The  remedy  for 
all  these  errors  is  the  same,  —  reference  to  appropriate 
realities,  careful  analysis  of  these  realities,  and  growing 
exactness  in  the  definition  of  our  terms. 


IO8  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 


Variation  of  Content  and  Extent  of  Notions. 

It  will  be  seen  by  examining  the  above  illustrations 
that,  if  a  learner  comprehends  in  his  notion  too  many 
elements,  the  extent  of  that  word  will  be  too  narrow ; 
that  is,  if  he  thinks  that  the  word  means  more  elements 
than  it  really  does  mean,  he  will  not  apply  the  word  to 
as  many  things  as  are  properly  embraced  in  its  exten- 
sion. This  observation  has  led  many  writers  to  declare 
that  the  greater  the  content  of  any  word,  the  smaller  the 
extent ;  and  the  smaller  the  content,  the  greater  the 
extent.  Or,  more  briefly,  the  content  and  extent  of 
a  notion  vary  inversely.  This  statement  deserves  care- 
ful examination. 

The  treatment  can  be  most  clearly  given  if  we  speak 
of  the  meaning  of  a  word  (which  corresponds  to  the 
content  of  a  notion),  and  the  application  of  a  word 
(which  corresponds  to  the  extent  of  a  notion).  Take  the 
word,  island :  if  this  signifies  to  a  child  a  grass-covered 
portion  of  ground  surrounded  by  water,  he  attributes  to 
the  word  more  meaning  than  he  should,  and  therefore 
he  does  not  apply  it  to  as  many  things  as  he  should. 
He  would  not  apply  it  to  sandy  or  stony  islands  because 
of  the  absence  of  grass.  Now,  if  upon  further  study  he 
should  drop  the  idea  of  grass  covering,  and  thus  narrow 
the  meaning,  he  would  widen  the  application  to  its 
legitimate  sphere.  It  is  because  the  child's  notion  is 
erroneous  in  content  that  it  is  at  first  too  narrow  in 
extent  ;  by  making  it  accord  in  content  with  the  true 
meaning  of  the  word,  he  widens  its  extent  to  the  proper 


THE    NOTION,    OR    CONCEPT. 

application  of  the  word.  In  all  this  the  meaning  of  the 
word  remains  unaltered,  though,  through  the  progress 
of  his  learning,  he  gradually  comes  to  think  differently 
about  it.  The  reader  can  further  illustrate  this  distinc- 
tion if  he  will  take  words,  and,  by  admitting  too  few  or 
too  many  elements  into  their  meaning,  try  their  applica- 
tion ;  then  he  can  cor  ect  the  mistaken  content  and  note 
the  change  in  extent  or  application. 

Next  let  us  take  the  word,  post,  with  a  changing  his- 
tory which  has  been  accumulating  meanings.  First,  the 
word  meant  a  piece  of  timber,  or  other  solid  substance, 
placed  firmly  in  an  upright  position.  Next,  and  without 
losing  any  of  the  first  meaning,  it  came  to  mean  the 
place  at  which  a  body  of  troops  is  permanently  located. 
Another  change,  and  it  came  to  mean  (without  losing 
any  of  its  former  significance)  a  messenger  who  goes 
from  station  to  station  ;  as,  one  who  regularly  carries 
letters  from  one  place  to  another.  Retaining  all  of  these 
meanings,  the  next  development  causes  it  to  embrace 
the  carriage  by  which  mail  is  transported.  Now,  it 
seems  clear  that  if  the  child  learns  the  first  of  these 
meanings,  which  taken  alone  is  correct,  the  word,  post, 
will  have  for  him  a  given  content  and  extent ;  if  he  adds 
the  other  meanings  in  succession,  not  needing  to  alter 
what  was  learned  before,  he  will  enrich  the  content  of 
his  notion  of  post  and  at  the  same  time  widen  its  extent. 
This  is  true  because  with  each  new  element  of  meaning 
there  was  no  interference  with  former  meanings,  but 
there  was  a  new  application  in  an  added  field. 

The  importance  that  attaches  to  this  distinction  is 
seen  when  we  remember  that  the  enrichment  of  a  child's 


I  IO  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

vocabulary  is  just  as  essential  to  his  intellectual  growth 
as  the  enlargement  of  it.  We  enrich  a  vocabulary  when 
we  give  added  significance  to  old  words  ;  we  enlarge  a 
vocabulary  when  we  add  new  words  to  it.  The  deepen- 
ing of  thought  which  accompanies  enrichment  is  even 
more  vital  to  a  child's  educational  well-being  than  the 
broadening  which  accompanies  enlargement,  for  the  latter 
may  be  associated  with  superficiality.  Teachers  need 
to  avoid  the  mistake  of  thinking  that  whenever  they 
thus  enrich  a  child's  notion  and  render  it  more  exact  and 
complete,  they  necessarily  narrow  its  application.  This 
is  true  only  when  the  enrichment  is  accomplished  by 
deserting  former  errors. 

This  relation  of  content  to  extent  should  also  be  noted 
in  reference  to  a  series  of  related  words.  In  the  series, 
living  thing,  animal,  quadruped,  dog,  each  member  em- 
braces more  elements  of  meaning  than  the  one  before  it, 
while  each  member  refers  to  fewer  things  than  the  one 
before  it.  Thus  it  is  clear  that  in  a  series  of  related 
concepts,  if  we  enlarge  the  content  down  the  series,  we 
narrow  the  extent ;  and,  if  we  narrow  the  content,  we 
enlarge  the  extent.  But  it  should  be  noted  that  this 
refers  to  no  change  whatever  in  any  of  the  concepts ;  it 
merely  compares  broader  and  narrower  concepts  with 
each  other. 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD.  Ill 


CHAPTER    XL 
DISTINCTIONS  OF  METHOD. 

Based  upon  the  Truths  of  the  Concept., 

THERE  are  four  distinct  methods  of  teaching,  which 
can  be  understood  only  in  the  light  of  a  knowledge  of 
the  nature  and  the  relation  of  individual  concepts  and 
general  concepts.  They  are  the  analytic  method,  syn- 
thetic method,  inductive  method,  and  deductive  method. 
It  is  the  aim  of  this  chapter  to  show  what  these  different 
methods  mean,  how  they  are  related  to  each  other,  and 
in  what  order  the  contrasted  ones  should  be  employed. 

The  analytic  method  of  teaching  is  the  method  in 
which  we  set  out  with  individuals  or  wholes,  and  proceed 
to  a  consideration  of  the  parts  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed. Starting  with  a  flower  and  proceeding  to  the 
study  of  its  parts  —  calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  pistil,  etc.  — 
is  an  example  of  analytic  teaching.  As  examples  of 
the  analytic  method  of  procedure  in  other  studies  may 
be  mentioned :  taking  a  sentence  in  grammar  and  pro- 
ceeding from  that  to  a  consideration  of  its  parts, — sub- 
ject, copula,  predicate,  modifiers,  etc.  ;  taking  a  problem 
in  arithmetic  and  proceeding  to  its  solution  by  the 
method  of  independent  analysis ;  taking  a  state  or 
country  in  geography  and  proceeding  to  learn  the  several 
parts  (the  names,  locations,  and  characteristics  of  the 
particular  rivers,  mountains,  towns,  etc.)  of  which  it  is 
composed.  In  an  analytic  method  of  teaching  we  have 


I  I  2  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

given  us  the  individuals  or  wholes,  which  are  simply  the 
parts  in  tJieir  proper  relations  to  each  other,  and  we  pro- 
ceed to  consider  each  of  these  parts  as  if  it  were  then  a 
separate  thing. 

The  synthetic  method  of  teaching  is  the  method  in 
which  we  set  out  with  the  dissociated  parts  of  things 
and  proceed  to  bring  these  into  proper  relation  to  each 
other,  so  as  to  construct  as  a  final  product  the  individual. 
Having  a  pile  of  dissociated  bones,  studying  the  function 
of  each,  and  then  bringing  them  into  such  relation  with 
one  another  as  to  produce  finally  the  human  skeleton,  is 
an  example  of  a  synthetic  method  of  teaching.  Taking 
isolated  words  and  building  possible  sentences  with  them 
is  a  synthetic  procedure.  Other  examples  are  :  teaching 
letters  and  then  from  these  constructing  certain  words  ; 
learning  about  a  particular  river,  its  surroundings,  the 
towns  upon  its  banks,  and  further  particular  items,  until 
we  have  built  up  a  picture  of  some  particular  state. 

It  should  be  noted  that,  in  the  analytic  method,  the 
parts  are  given  in  their  relation  to  each  other,  and,  hence, 
the  relations  are  clearly  present  to  be  discovered ;  the 
functions  of  the  several  parts  as  they  affect  one  another 
are  thus  made  manifest.  In  the  synthetic  method  the 
parts  are  given  out  of  their  proper  relation  to  each  other, 
and  it  is  assumed  that  they  can  be  studied  in  such 
isolation,  and  that  their  several  relations  can  be  dis- 
covered in  the  process  of  bringing  them  together  to 
construct  the  unit,  or  individual  thing.  It  should  also  be 
noted  that  these  two  methods  have  to  do  only  with  the  men- 
tal movement  between  single  things  and  their  parts ;  the 
idea  of  classification  does  not  enter  into  either  of  them. 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD.  113 

The  inductive  method  of  teaching  is  the  method  in 
which  we  set  out  with  individual  things,  and  by  a  com- 
parative study  of  several  individuals  —  noting  likenesses 
and  differences  —  develop  general  notions  or  generaliza- 
tions ;  or,  we  begin  with  generalizations  of  a  given  order 
and  by  their  comparative  study  we  arrive  at  still  wider 
generalizations.  Taking  several  observable  portions  of 
land  and,  from  a  comparative  study  of  these,  deriving 
the  notion  and  the  definition  of  island,  is  an  inductive 
procedure.  Solving  several  problems  in  arithmetic  by 
independent  analysis,  and  then,  by  comparison  of  their 
processes,  formulating  a  rule  for  the  solution  of  such 
problems,  is  an  inductive  process.  Generalizing  defini- 
tions, rules,  laws,  and  principles,  from  a  comparative 
study  of  facts,  is  inductive.  The  very  essence  of  induc- 
tion is  comparison  of  members  of  a  class  with  a  view  to 
discovering  similar  elements. 

The  deductive  method  of  teaching  is  the  method  in 
which  we  set  out  with  generalizations  (definitions,  rules, 
laws,  or  principles)  and  proceed  to  their  application  in 
individual  cases.  As  examples  of  the  deductive  method 
we  may  mention  :  committing  rules  in  arithmetic  and 
then  applying  them  to  the  solution  of  problems ;  study- 
ing the  definitions  of  geography  from  a  book  and  then 
proceeding  to  find  them  illustrated  in  the  land  and  water 
forms  about  the  school ;  reading  the  generalizations 
about  the  human  body,  which  are  contained  in  the 
ordinary  works  on  physiology,  and  then  proceeding  to 
examine  our  own  bodies  in  order  to  verify  them ;  studying 
botany  by  first  reading  the  book  statements  about 
plants,  and  following  this  by  an  examination  of  specimens 


I  14  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

of  the  plants  previously  described ;  starting  with  the 
axioms  of  mathematics  and  proceeding  by  a  demonstra- 
tive process  to  principles,  rules,  and  the  solution  of 
problems. 

A  careful  consideration  of  the  above  definitions  and 
the  examples  cited  will  enable  the  learner  to  understand 
that  the  terms,  induction  and  deduction,  apply  only  to  those 
mental  movements  which  involve  a  passage  from  general- 
izations, never  to  the  mental  movements  between  indi- 
vidual things  and  their  several  parts. 

The  Four  Methods  Distinguished. 

Much  theoretical  confusion  and  not  a  little  practical 
blundering  in  pedagogy  results  from  the  failure  to  dis- 
criminate clearly  between  these  two  sets  of  related 
methods  of  teaching.  Analytic  teaching  is  thought  to 
be  identical  with  deductive  teaching ;  and  synthetic 
teaching  with  inductive  teaching. 

The  accompanying  diagram  will  add  clearness  to  this 
discussion  and  be  made  the  basis  of  much  that  follows  : — 

CLASSES,  OR  GENERALIZATIONS. 
(General  Notions.) 

— : — 


VI 


INDIVIDUALS,  OR  SINGLE  THINGS. 
(Individual  Notions.) 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD. 


INDIVIDUALS,  OR  SINGLE  THINGS. 
(Individual  Notions.) 


A 


V 


PARTS,  OF  WHICH  THE  INDIVIDUALS  ARE  COMPOSED. 

A  study  of  the  diagram  will  reveal  the  fact  that  only 
truth  which  has  reference  to  classes  of  things  can  be 
treated  by  induction  or  deduction  ;  and  only  truth  which 
has  reference  to  single  things  and  their  parts  can  be 
mastered  by  an  analytic  or  a  synthetic  process.  Since 
individuals  need  to  be  comprehended  (in  so  far  as  this  is 
possible  in  their  individual  character)  before  they  can  be 
compared  for  the  purpose  of  making  inductive  general- 
izations, it  will  be  seen  that,  in  an  inductive  process,  the 
process  of  analysis  may  be  involved.  It  is  further  evi- 
dent that  in  an  inductive  process  there  is  a  certain 
bringing  together  of  elements,  which  looks  much  like 
an  act  of  synthesis.  These  elements,  which  have  been 
found  to  be  the  similar  elements  in  several  individuals, 
are  taken  in  their  collective  capacity  as  the  ground  of 
the  generalization  ;  indeed,  the  generalization  is  simply  a 
truth  which  embraces  in  its  content  these  several  ele- 
ments. But,  though  this  inductive  process  looks  much 


I  1 6  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

like  a  synthetic  act,  there  are  numerous  synthetic  acts 
which  do  not  partake  in  the  least  of  the  vital  parts  of 
an  inductive  process,  which  vital  parts  are  comparison  of 
several  individuals,  and  generalization  of  a  truth  which 
is  the  outgrowth  of  such  comparison. 

Illustration  :  We  may  give  to  a  child  a  column  of 
dissociated  words  and  have  him  put  them  into  suitable 
relations  with  one  another  and  thus  synthetically  con- 
struct a  given  sentence.  Other  columns  of  words  may 
be  given  and  from  these  other  individual  sentences  may 
be  synthetically  formed.  But  in  every  instance  the 
product  is  a  grammatical  unit,  built  up  of  just  the  parts 
which  the  child  put  into  it,  no  more  and  no  less.  To 
drop  one  of  the  pieces  (words)  or  to  add  one  is  to  pro- 
duce a  different  resulting  unit.  When  one  of  these  units 
(sentences)  is  being  built  out  of  the  words  which  are  to 
compose  it,  all  the  others  are  disregarded.  In  thus 
creating  units  out  of  parts,  synthesis  has  accomplished  all 
of  which  it  is  capable. 

These  sentences  may  be  taken  and,  by  the  help  of  the 
teacher,  who  knows  just  where  he  wishes  to  lead  the 
child  in  his  thinking,  the  child  may  discover  certain 
marks  of  similarity  which  will  enable  him  to  put  the 
sentences  into  groups,  —  those  which  express  truth,  those 
which  ask  questions,  etc.  Now,  with  his  attention  di- 
rected to  these  similarities,  and  away  from  all  the  non- 
essential  differences,  he  may  be  given  the  words,  declara- 
tive, interrogative,  etc.,  and  then  be  led  to  define  them  ; 
as,  a  declarative  sentence  is  one  which  expresses  a 
thought,  or,  a  declarative  sentence  is  one  which  affirms 
or  denies.  In  this  work,  which  is  inductive,  it  should  be 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD.  II? 

specially  noted  that  the  product  secured  (the  definition) 
is  not  limited  in  its  application  to  the  cases  we  have 
examined,  but  that  it  comprehends  all  cases  that  have 
the  required  marks,  wherever  and  whenever  they  may  be 
found.  It  is  not  in  any  true  sense,  as  each  sentence 
above  is,  made  up  of  the  elements  that  were  considered 
together  in  its  production.  If  in  the  work  above  we  had 
taken  different  words,  we  should  have  produced  different 
sentences  ;  but  in  this  study  any  other  appropriate  sen- 
tences would  do  just  as  well  as  the  ones  that  were  used, 
and  we  could  secure  through  their  use  just  the  results 
(the  definitions)  given  above.  The  result  of  the  syn- 
thetic process  is  a  distinct  imageable  unit ;  the  result  of 
the  inductive  process  is  a  generalization.  By  the  syn- 
thetic process  we  can  construct  individual  notions ;  by 
the  inductive  process  we  develop  general  notions.  Just 
so  the  deductive  method  differs  from  the  analytic  method. 
In  deduction  we  have  a  generalization  to  start  with,  and 
our  process  consists  in  applying  this  generalization  to 
the  mastery  of  new  individual  instances  ;  in  analysis  we 
have  a  given  unit  to  start  with,  and  our  process  consists 
in  separating  it  into  its  several  constituent  parts  and 
viewing  each  of  these  parts  as  if  it  were  a  distinct 
individual. 

Thus  far  in  the  discussion  reference  has  been  made 
only  to  individual  and  general  notions.  For  pedagogy  it 
is  necessary  that  we  extend  this  application  into  a  wider 
domain  and  embrace  judgments  as  well.  Most  of  our 
teaching  is  concerned  with  truth,  and  truth  appears  in 
the  form  of  the  judgment  and  is  expressed  by  the 
sentence. 


Il8  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

In  examining  any  lot  of  declarative  sentences  (propo- 
sitions) —  such  as 

1.  Horses  are  quadrupeds. 

2.  Pennsylvania  is  a  very  wealthy  state. 

3.  A  triangle  is  a  plane  figure  having  three  sides  and 
three  angles. 

4.  "  Dot  "  is  a  very  beautiful  cow. 

5.  Virtue  is  its  own  reward. 

6.  That  act  of  Mr.  A.  was  a  splendid  mark  of  man- 
liness — 

we  find  that  their  subjects  name  notions  that  are  either 
individual  or  general.  If  the  subject  names  a  distinct 
imageable  thing,  it  is  then  a  logically  singular  term  ;  if 
it  names  a  class,  and  therefore  a  non-imageable  quantity, 
it  is  a  general  term.  Reference  to  the  sentences  above 
will  reveal  the  fact  that  the  subjects  of  2,  4,  and  6  are 
logically  singular  (individual  terms),  while  the  subjects 
of  i,  3,  and  5  are  logically  universal  (general  terms). 
Now  since  classes  cannot  be  observed,  any  element 
expressed  by  a  general  term  is  a  non-observable  element. 
On  the  other  hand,  since  single  things  (individuals)  are 
observable  quantities,  the  elements  expressed  by  singu- 
lar terms  are  observable  elements.  The  truth  of  the 
propositions  2,  4,  and  6  may  be  verified  by  observation ; 
the  truths  of  the  propositions  i,  3,  and  5  cannot  be  so 
verified.  We  may  observe  this  horse  and  thus  learn  that 
it  is  a  quadruped.  (Of  course  this  implies  that  we  come 
to  the  observation  with  a  knowledge  of  the  notion  quad- 
ruped.) But  it  requires  a  process  of  generalization  to 
arrive  at  the  truth,  Horses  are  quadrupeds.  We  may 
observe  a  person  performing  a  virtuous  act  and  note  the 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD.  I  1 9 

reward  which  attends  it  in  the  quiet  and  satisfaction  of  his 
own  consciousness,  as  this  satisfaction  is  revealed  in  his 
acts ;  but  an  act  of  generalization  from  just  such  data  is 
necessary  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  truth,  Virtue  is  its  own 
reward.  No  induction  is  possible  as  a  means  of  establish- 
ing the  truth  of  a  proposition  whose  subject  is  a  logically 
singular  term.  In  this  discussion  no  reference  is  made 
to  the  predicates  of  the  propositions ;  all  the  attention 
is  directed  to  the  subjects.  This  is  because  the  predi- 
cate is  always  assumed  to  be  known,  and  the  learning 
has  direct  reference,  therefore,  to  the  part  named  by  the 
subject  term.  The  only  form  of  judgment  that  clearly 
adds  to  our  fund  of  knowledge  is  the  synthetic  judg- 
ment ;  that  is,  one  whose  predicate  is  wider  in  meaning 
than  the  subject.  In  all  such  judgments  the  predicates 
are  supposed  to  be  known,  and  the  act  of  judgment  con- 
sists in  subsuming  (including)  the  new  subject  under  the 
old  predicate ;  that  is,  in  discovering  their  thought  re- 
lation. If  any  desired  predicate  is  not  known,  we 
make  it  the  subject  of  another  proposition  in  the  act  of 
making  it  known ;  then  it  is  in  readiness  to  be  used  as  a 
predicate  for  the  sentence  which  is  engaging  our  thought. 
To  sum  up,  therefore,  we  may  say  that  any  judgment 
whose  subject  is  logically  singular  may  be  viewed  in  the 
same  light  as  an  individual  notion;  and  any  judgment 
whose  subject  is  logically  universal  may  be  viewed  in  the 
same  light  as  a  general  notion.  What  has  been  said, 
therefore,  about  the  methods  applicable  to  the  presenta- 
tion of  individual  notions  and  general  notions  respectively, 
may  be  taken  to  apply  with  equal  force  to  judgments 
or  propositions  whose  subjects  are  logically  singular  and 

i 
•  } 


I2O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

to  those  whose  subjects  are  logically  universal.  If  the 
subject  is  logically  singular,  the  truth  of  the  proposition 
must  be  determined  by  observation  or  by  some  other 
form  of  independent  analysis.  The  subject  must  be 
analyzed,  at  least  sufficiently  to  enable  the  learner  to  sub- 
sume it  under  the  predicate  at  hand.  No  comparative 
study  of  similar  individuals  will  assist  in  this  process  ; 
no  generalization  is  involved  in  it ;  it  does  not  reach  the 
stage  of  an  inductive  act  in  any  sense  whatever.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  subject  of  a  proposition  is  logically 
universal,  the  truth  of  that  proposition  can  be  estab- 
lished only  through  reference  to^the  individuals  which 
are  grouped  under  it.  When  these  individuals  have 
been  comparatively  studied  (after  each  has  itself  been 
sufficiently  analyzed  for  the  purpose),  we  are  then  in  a 
condition  to  make  our  inductive  generalization.  The 
number  of  individual  instances  needing  examination  is 
not  now  in  question.  It  may  require  few  or  many.  In 
mathematics  it  is  often  sufficient  to  use  only  one 
problem  as  a  means  of  establishing  the  generalization 
stated  in  a  rule,  because  the  conditions  are  so  exact  and 
the  inference  so  plain ;  in  physics  or  biology  it  may  be 
necessary  to  employ  many  examples,  because  of  the  pos- 
sible varieties  of  circumstances  that  may  be  thought  to 
be  interferences  unless  they  are  systematically  elimi- 
nated, not  by  being  silently  rejected,  but  by  being 
tested. 

A  comparative  illustration  will  help  to  add  clearness 
to  the  thought  of  sameness  in  the  pedagogical  treat- 
ment of  notions  and  judgments. 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD.  121 

MENTAL  MOVEMENTS,  ILLUSTRATED  IN  THE  REALM 

OF  NOTIONS. 

(Higher  class) 

Animal 

(Lower  class) 
Dog  Horse 

(Individuals) 

Rover,  Sport,  Jack,  Harry,  Frank,  Bill, 

or  or  or  or 


(Parts)    His    head,    skin,    color,  (Parts)    His    head,    skin,    color, 

body,  bones,  size,  tail,  muscles,  body,  bones,  size,  tail,  muscles, 

form,  legs,  etc.  form,  legs,  etc. 

MENTAL  MOVEMENTS,  ILLUSTRATED  IN  THE  REALM  OF 

JUDGMENTS. 

(Higher  class) 

Cloven-hoofed  animals 

are  herbivorous. 

(Lower  class) 

The  sheep  is  The  cow  is 

herbivorous.  herbivorous. 

(Individuals) 

"  Dot"  eats  grass  (is  herbivorous). 
"  Beauty  "  eats  grass  (is  herbivorous). 
"  Nellie  "  eats  grass  (is  herbivorous). 

In  studying  this  illustration  we  should  remember  that 
there  are  no  fully  observable  elements  above  individuals. 
We  cannot  make  observation  of  dog,  horse,  or  animal  ; 
we  may  observe  Rover,  Sport,  Harry,  and  the  others,  or 
we  may  observe  the  parts  of  any  of  these.  We  cannot 
observe  that  cloven-hoofed  animals  are  herbivorous,  nor 
even  that  sheep  or  cows  are  herbivorous  ;  we  may  ob- 
serve the  doings  of  Dot,  Beauty,  Nellie,  and  others,  and 
thus  establish  the  truth  of  the  judgments :  —  Dot,  Beauty, 
and  Nellie  are  herbivorous.  If  one  were  to  make  the 
assertion,  Cloven-hoofed  animals  are  herbivorous,  it 


122  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

might  be  met  by  the  inquiry,  "  How  is  this  known  ?  "  II 
would  not  suffice  to  refer  to  the  next  lower  generaliza- 
tion, and,  having  asserted  that  sheep  are  herbivorous 
and  cows  are  herbivorous,  to  rest  there.  Again  would 
come  the  inquiry,  "  How  do  you  know  it  ?  "  This  would 
require  us  to  fall  back  one  step  further  to  the  proposi- 
tion with  a  logically  singular  subject,  and  here  we  might 
rest,  for  we  are  now  on  a  basis  of  solid  fact  of  observa- 
tion. We  can  make  sufficient  analytical  examination  of 
Dot,  Beauty,  Nellie,  etc.,  to  note  that  each  of  them  does 
eat  grass.  The  only  question  now  involved  is,  whether 
or  not  we  have  examined  with  correctness  a  sufficient 
number  of  individual  cases  to  warrant  the  successive 
generalizations  that  we  make. 

But  suppose  such  a  distinction  as  that  made  in  refer- 
ence to  these  four  methods  is  clear,  what  is  it  all  worth  ? 
Much  in  several  ways.  In  the  first  place,  it  will  enable 
us  to  avoid  the  confusion  of  thought  which  can  state  the 
above  distinctions  in  definitions  and  forthwith  confuse 
them  in  the  illustrations.  In  the  second  place,  it  will 
prevent  the  error  of  thinking  that  because  it  is  correct 
to  proceed  in  nature  study  from  the  facts  of  observation 
to  the  laws  and  causes,  which  are  truths  above  obser- 
vation, it  is  therefore  correct  to  proceed  in  geography 
from  the  school  grounds,  which  may  be  observed,  to  the 
township,  county,  state,  country,  etc.,  which  are  beyond 
observation.  The  first  of  these  is  a  clear  case  of  induc- 
tion, leading  from  individuals  which  may  be  observed,  to 
truths  which  are  reached  by  generalization  ;  the  second 
is  an  equally  clear  case  of  synthesis,  leading  only  to  a 
larger,  but  distant,  unit.  Such  imperfect  thinking  by 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD.  123 

false  analogies  seems  destined  to  lead  to  more  confirmed 
errors  in  practice  than  are  likely  to  befall  one  who  seems 
scarcely  to  think  at  all  upon  matters  of  pedagogy,  but 
who  merely  acts  in  the  schoolroom  as  he  was  acted  upon. 
In  the  next  place,  this  distinction  will  aid  teachers  in 
determining  the  nature  of  the  results  that  may  wisely  be 
reached  by  leading  pupils  in  thought  through  a  long  and 
laborious  process  of  discovery,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
those  which  should  be  told  without  delay.  It  will  save 
teachers  the  heartache,  occasioned  by  a  fruitless  endeavor 
to  make  the  committing  of  the  multiplication  table  or  a 
stanza  of  poetry  submit  to  the  same  orderly  procedure 
that  they  find  appropriate  in  the  development  of  a  rule 
in  arithmetic  or  a  law  in  physics.  In  short,  it  will  en- 
able teachers  to  see  clearly  that  the  mental  steps  in- 
volved in  the  mastery  of  a  body  of  truth  which  is  to  be 
comprehended  are  necessarily  very  different  from  the 
processes  undergone  in  the  development  of  skill,  or 
from  those  required  in  impressing  any  item  upon  the 
memory. 

We  frequently  hear  stated  in  support  of  a  synthetic 
procedure  that  it  is  in  accord  with  the  so-called  "  prin- 
ciple "  —  proceed  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  This 
educational  maxim,  however,  has  no  significance  except 
where  the  known  can  be  discovered,  at  least  in  part,  in 
that  which  is  as  yet  unknown  ;  and  this  familiar  element 
then  serves  as  the  means  of  interpreting  the  unfamiliar. 
But  such  conditions  do  not  exist  where  part  is  put  with 
part  synthetically  until  a  whole,  or  unit,  is  formed.  They 
are  present,  however,  in  all  cases  where  a  generalization 
has  been  inductively  developed  and  is  then  applied  to 


124  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

new  individual  instances.  A  knowledge  of  the  names, 
locations,  and  characteristics  of  the  rivers,  mountains, 
cities,  etc.,  of  Pennsylvania  will  be  of  no  service  what- 
ever in  enabling  a  learner  to  interpret  these  same  facts 
concerning  the  rivers,  mountains,  and  cities  of  New 
York  or  other  surrounding  states.  And  yet,  this  is 
literally  a  case  of  proceeding  from  what  is  known  to 
what  is  as  yet  unknown.  Indeed,  it  is  clear  that  all 
learning  is  such  a  process  —  passing  from  the  narrow 
bounds  of  the  known  of  to-day  into  the  wider  unknown 
which  is  to  become  in  part  known  by  next  week  or  next 
year.  But  this  is  a  simple  truism.  Certainly  when  put 
into  the  form  of  an  educational  maxim,  it  is  intended 
to  convey  some  real  meaning.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
knowledge  of  the  general  concepts,  river,  mountain,  city, 
etc.,  will  enable  me  to  understand  when  I  study  about 
the  rivers,  mountains,  or  cities  located  in  any  portion  of 
the  earth,  and  I  can  understand  what  I  study  about  dis- 
tant ones  just  as  well  as  I  can  what  I  study  about  the 
ones  in  an  adjoining  state.  So  also  will  a  knowledge  of 
the  way  to  multiply  a  fraction  by  a  fraction  be  of  great 
service  in  aiding  me  to  understand  how  to  divide  a  frac- 
tion by  a  fraction,  not  because  the  advance  here  made  is 
a  synthetic  one,  but  because  the  old  truth  reappears  as 
an  element  in  the  new,  and  thus  enables  me  the  better 
to  interpret  the  new. 

Order  of  Use  of  Contrasted  Methods. 

Since  the  great  body  of  our  study  consists  in  the  mas- 
tery of  that  which  nature  furnishes  to  the  student ;  and 
since  nature  furnishes  to  us  only  individuals,  —  never 


DISTINCTIONS  OF  METHOD.  125 

classes,  nor  dissociated  parts,  excepting  in  the  midst  of 
decay,  —  it  would  seem  natural  to  begin  our  study  with 
individuals.  That  this  is  also  the  dictate  of  reason  we 
have  on  no  less  authority  than  that  of  Sir  William 
Hamilton,  who  says,  in  his  "  Lectures  on  Metaphysics  "  : 
"  The  first  procedure  of  the  mind  in  the  elaboration  of 
its  knowledge  is  always  analytical.  It  descends  from 
the  whole  to  its  parts,  from  the  vague  to  the  definite." 
In  support  of  this  position  it  might  further  be  added,  that 
any  generalization  from  particular  data  is  comprehensible 
only  in  the  light  of  the  data  from  which  it  is  developed. 
As  giving  satisfaction  to  still  other  minds,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  dissociated  parts,  which  are  parts  out  of 
relation  to  one  another,  are  either  totally  incomprehen- 
sible or,  at  least,  very  difficult  of  comprehension.  It 
would  seem  to  be  the  dictate  of  wisdom,  therefore,  to 
begin  our  instruction  with  that  which  human  reason  re- 
quires and  the  natural  universe  provides.  Systems  of 
classification,  as  well  as  dissociated  fragments,  are  arti- 
ficial human  products.  The  point  of  departure  in  our 
teaching,  therefore,  should  be  neither  dissociated  parts 
to  be  synthetically  grouped  into  units,  nor  generaliza- 
tions in  the  form  of  laws,  principles,  or  definitions  to  be 
deductively  applied.  Of  course  this  does  not  refer  to 
the  point  of  departure  in  any  subject  for  students  of  an 
advanced  grade,  but  to  the  true  point  of  departure  for 
those  beginning  the  study  of  a  subject. 

All  our  argument,  then,  seems  to  point  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  learning  should  begin  with  individuals  and 
should  return  to  individuals.  Two  courses  are  therefore 
open  to  the  learner,  and  his  choice  must  be  determined 


126  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

by  the  immediate  end  which  he  has  in  view.  If,  in  his 
study,  his  consideration  is  given  to  an  individual  thing 
without  any  reference  to  its  classification  (or  considera- 
tion in  the  light  of  a  general  law),  the  entire  procedure 
for  him  is  an  analytic-synthetic  one  ;  if,  on  the  other 
hand,  he  is  using  this  individual  in  connection  with 
others,  or  as  a  type  of  its  kind,  for  the  purpose  of  gen- 
eralization, the  entire'procedure  for  him  is  an  inductive- 
deductive  one. 

This  is  intended  to  emphasize  the  thought  that,  though 
the  individual  or  whole  is  the  correct  point  of  departure 
in  teaching,  the  learner  should  not  stop  with  having 
performed  merely  the  act  of  analysis,  since  this  will 
leave  him  with  a  resultant  product  of  dissociated  frag- 
ments having  neither  coherency  nor  usefulness;  this 
analytic  act  should  be  followed  by  the  reconstructive  act 
of  synthesis.  Having  started  with  a  whole  or  unit  of 
apprehension,  the  pupil  will  return  by  an  analytic- 
synthetic  process  to  this  same  unit,  which  is  now  a  unit 
of  comprehension.  If  this  study  of  individuals  is  a  com- 
parative one  whereby  he  reaches  generalizations,  it  is 
again  not  enough  for  him  to  perform  merely  the  process 
of  induction  and  rest  with  that ;  such  a  course  will  leave 
him  in  the  realm  of  vague  generalizations.  In  order 
that  these  generalizations  may  be  stripped  of  their 
vagueness  and  become  practically  useful,  the  learner 
must  continue  his  thought  and  must  make  deductive 
application  of  them  in  new  and  varied  individual  in- 
stances. This  alone  can  save  him  from  a  mere  pretense 
of  wisdom,  in  which  much  dealing  is  done  in  glittering 
generalities,  and  give  to  him  the  stability  and  security 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD. 


127 


of  definite  fact.  The  relation  of  these  several  operations 
to  each  other  may  be  graphically  indicated  by  the  fol- 
lowing diagram  :  — 


The  generalization 

which  results  from 

such  comparison. 


Whole 
of 
apprehension. 

Whole 
of 
comprehension. 

Several  such 
wholes  to  be 
compared. 

New  wholes 
in  which  the 
generalization 
is  applied. 

Parts 

which  compose  the 
whole. 


These  four  operations  embrace  what  are  regarded  by 
the  advocates  of  Herbart's  pedagogy  as  the  necessary 
stages  of  all  right  method;  that  is,  "(i)  the  appercep- 
tion or  assimilation  of  individual  notions ;  (2)  the  trans- 
ition from  individual  to  general  notions,  whether  the 
latter  appear  as  definitions,  rules,  principles,  or  moral 
maxims ;  and  (3)  the  application  of  these  general  truths 
to  new  concrete  facts  —  the  return  from  general  notions 
to  new  individuals." 


128  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

The  process  of  analysis-synthesis  corresponds  to  the 
apperception  or  assimilation  of  individual  notions ;  in- 
duction corresponds  to  the  transition  from  individual  to 
general  notions  ;  and  deduction  corresponds  to  the  ap- 
plication of  the  general  notions  to  new  individuals. 

Though  the  above  order  is  the  one  to  be  observed 
wherever  the  conditions  exist  that  will  make  the  appli- 
cation of  these  several  methods  possible,  it  is  not  to  be 
understood  that  they  are  applicable  in  all  subjects. 
Induction  and  deduction  have  no  meaning  whatever  ex- 
cepting in  connection  with  a  body  of  truth  (a  body  of 
generalizations)  which  is  to  be  comprehended.  The 
mere  committing  to  memory  of  facts,  or  the  acquire- 
ment of  skill  in  an  art,  are  cases  where  induction  and 
deduction  have  no  significance.  There  must  be  general 
notions  to  develop  and  to  employ,  in  order  to  make 
occasion  for  the  use  of  induction  and  deduction.  Com- 
mitting to  memory  a  set  of  definite  facts,  as  a  poem, 
the  multiplication  table,  or  the  facts  of  history,  is  simply 
impressing  upon  a  learner's  being  a  fund  of  individuals. 
Of  course  these  should  when  possible  be  comprehended, 
but  the  endeavor  to  comprehend  is  a  different  learning 
act  from  that  of  committing.  The  acquirement  of  skill 
in  an  art,  such  as  writing,  drawing,  singing,  or  gymnas- 
tics, affords  no  opportunity  for  the  employment  of 
induction  and  deduction.  These  arts  are  primarily 
matters  of  muscle  control,  and  not  mental  operations 
upon  truth. 

The  claim  is  sometimes  made  that,  though  the  general 
must  be  preceded  by  the  particular,  because  there  is  no 
other  way  in  which  the  general  can  be  understood,  yet 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD. 

it  makes  no  real  difference  whether  one's  actual  teach- 
ing course  is  inductive  or  deductive.  To  this  it  may  be 
replied  that,  though  interest  may  at  times  be  best 
awakened  by  hurling  at  a  pupil  some  bold  generaliza- 
tion, yet  this  is  not  a  safe  general  procedure  and  can  be 
advocated  only  as  a  temporary  device.  While  it  may 
thus  be  employed  as  an  expedient  for  arousing  an  other- 
wise sluggish  mind,  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  is 
contrary  to  the  rule  of  rational  procedure  with  minds 
that  are  active.  A  surgeon's  knife  may  with  wisdom 
be  applied  to  a  diseased  part,  but  no  one  would  seriously 
consider  making  this  a  just  ground  for  advocating  its 
universal  use  upon  healthy  organs.  Interest  is  often 
best  aroused  by  startling  a  mind  with  the  unexpected ; 
but  rational,  systematic  thinking  is  never  furthered  by 
such  disorders.  In  all  of  this  it  is  not  forgotten  that 
with  advanced  pupils  a  study  may  wisely  begin  with 
generalizations,  but  they  should  always  be  generaliza- 
tions whose  individual  elements  have  been  employed  in 
earlier  learning,  or  else  they  are  generalizations  thrown 
out  to  invite  effort  at  mastery  from  persons  equipped  by 
maturity  and  information  to  make  such  an  effort  with,  at 
least,  a  probability  of  success. 

It  signifies  nothing  that  many  good  text-books  open 
their  various  sections  by  stating  either  definitions  or 
laws.  The  text-book  is  not  necessarily  meant  to  indi- 
cate by  its  arrangement  the  method  that  intelligent 
teachers  should  employ  in  its  use.  More  frequently  it  is 
only  a  record  of  conclusions  in  the  form  of  generaliza- 
tions, with  an  additional  part  composed  of  examples  to 
be  used  in  drilling  pupils  in  the  employment  of  these 


I3O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

generalizations.  The  wisdom  of  this  arrangement  for 
most  text-books  is  seen  in  the  fact  that,  if  they  were 
made  inductive  so  as  to  indicate  the  steps  to  be  taken 
in  teaching  the  truths  recorded  in  them,  they  would 
become  so  bulky  as  to  be  both  unwieldly  and  unmarket- 
able. 

The  objection  is  sometimes  urged  that  the  term,  "unit 
of  study,"  is  so  vague -or  meaningless  that  its  use  only 
beclouds  any  discussion  in  pedagogy.  It  is  urged  that 
anything  may  be  regarded  as  a  unit ;  that  it  all  depends 
upon  the  view  point ;  that  what  is  a  unit  to  the  mind  of 
a  child  may  be  but  a  part  to  the  teacher's  mind.  And 
so  we  hear  that,  if  we  are  considering  a  grove,  the  indi- 
vidual trees  are  but  parts  ;  if  we  are  studying  a  tree, 
the  several  leaves  upon  it  are  parts ;  if  we  consider  the 
earth  with  reference  to  its  geography,  it  is  a  whole  ;  if 
we  consider  it  with  reference  to  the  solar  system,  it  is 
a  part ;  if  we  desire  to  make  it  so,  we  may  consider  as 
a  whole  either  a  river  basin,  a  continental  land-slope,  or 
a  rain  belt.  The  full  treatment  of  this  subject  will  be 
postponed  to  a  later  chapter  (see  page  144).  Suffice  it 
to  say  here,  that  the  matter  is  not  to  be  regarded  from 
the  child's  view  point,  nor  from  the  teacher's  view  point, 
nor  yet  from  the  point  of  expediency  or  arbitrary  choice  ; 
it  is  to  be  determined  in  the  light  of  the  nature  and  re- 
quirements of  the  branch  of  study  itself.  If  the  child, 
at  a  given  stage  in  his  mental  development,  is  not  able 
to  appreciate  the  unit  which  the  subject  offers  him  for 
consideration,  he  is  not  prepared  to  pursue  that  branch 
of  study,  and  it  would  produce  but  a  stunted  mental 
condition  to  force  him  to  it  prematurely.  Finally,  if  the 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD. 


distinctions  of  method  as  above  made  are  to  have  any 
real  significance,  or  any  practical  worth,  the  determina- 
tion of  the  unit  of  study  for  each  branch,  as  a  means 
of  fixing  the  point  of  departure,  is  an  absolute  necessity. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  SUBJECTS. 


Those  in  which  the 
dominant  aim  is  the 
understanding  of  a 
body  of  truths  (gen- 
eral notions). 


Those  in  which  the 
dominant  aim  is  the 
impressing  of  a  set 
of  facts  (individual 
notions). 


Those  in  which  the  domi- 
nant aim  is  the  develop- 
ment of  a  certain  form  of 
skill  (power  of  doing) . 


TRUTHS. 

Arithmetic. 
Algebra. 
Grammar. 
Geometry. 
Physics. 
Botany. 
Physiology. 
Introductory    Geogra- 
phy. 

Bookkeeping. 
Physical  Geography. 
Civil  Government. 
Rhetoric. 


FACTS. 

History. 

Political  Geography. 
Spelling. 
Literature. 
The  Mechanics  of 
Reading. 


ARTS. 

Oral  Reading. 
Writing. 
Drawing. 
Vocal  Music. 
Manual  Training. 
Gymnastics. 
Language  Lessons. 


Perhaps  teachers  will  not  all  agree  that  the  subjects 
as  placed  in  the  above  outline  are  all  rightly  placed. 
There  is  doubtless  room  for  some  difference  of  opinion. 
Yet  it  is  clear  that  the  general  plan  of  classification  is 
a  reasonable  one,  and  I  think  it  will  presently  appear 
that  it  has  vital  pedagogical  significance.  The  word, 
"fact,"  employed  in  the  classification  may  need  some 
explanation.  This  is  a  word  with  varied  meanings. 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

Sometimes  it  is  used,  in  contrast  with  theory,  to  mean 
what  is  known  by  evidence  of  the  senses,  and  not  what 
is  hypothetical.  At  other  times  it  is  used  to  denote 
what  is  true,  as  opposed  to  what  is  untrue.  At  still 
other  times  it  is  used  to  denote  what  is  particular,  in 
contrast  to  what  is  general.  It  is  in  this  last  sense  that 
it  is  used  in  the  present  discussion.  Wherever  there  is 
an  individual  item  offered  for  study  and  to  be  impressed 
upon  the  memory,  we  denominate  it  a  fact,  in  contrast 
with  the  generalizations,  which  can  be  apprehended  only 
through  a  process  of  discursive  thought,  and  which  are 
denominated  truths. 

As  a  means  of  settling  any  differences  of  opinion 
concerning  the  placing  of  particular  subjects,  it  may  be 
well  to  offer  the  following  thoughts :  — 

i.  Most  subjects  are  so  varied  and  complicated  in 
their  structure,  that  they  are  found  to  contain  parts 
which  should  be  located  under  each  of  the  general 
heads.  But  in  order  to  escape  such  a  microscopic  analy- 
sis of  subjects  as  would  be  required  if  this  were  under- 
taken, we  have  placed  the  subject  in  the  group  which 
accords  with  its  predominant  character  and  aim.  If  a 
subject  has  as  its  chief  element  a  body  of  generalizations, 
as  in  arithmetic,  we  place  it  under  "Truths,"  even 
though  it  may  contain  some  portions  that  are  pure  arts 
to  be  acquired  or  simple  facts  to  be  impressed.  When 
this  is  so  in  any  subject,  the  intelligent  teacher  will 
know  it  and  will  plan  accordingly  for  the  teaching  of 
the  exceptional  parts.  The  unintelligent  teacher  would 
not  be  helped,  even  should  we  complicate  the  scheme 
by  cutting  subjects  into  minute  sections.  No  directions 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD.  133 

in  teaching  can  take  the  place  of  a  knowledge  of  the 
subjects  to  be  taught,  or  of  a  mastery  of  the  general 
philosophy  which  underlies  their  teaching. 

2.  A  determination  of  the  dominant  purpose  to  be 
served  by  any  subject  of  study  will  do  much  to  settle 
both  its  classification  in  this  scheme,  and  the  method  by 
which  it  should  be  taught.  Do  we  teach  grammar  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  to  pupils  a  mastery  of  the  struc- 
ture of  the  language  ?  If  so,  that  subject  has  been 
rightly  placed,  and  the  appeal  in  our  teaching  must  be 
made  strongly  to  the  child's  reason.  Or  is  grammar 
taught  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  us  to  speak 
and  write  the  language  correctly  ?  If  so,  then  we  are 
aiming  in  it  at  the  formation  of  correct  habits  in  speech 
and  writing,  and  we  should  locate  grammar  under  the 
"Arts."  Our  method  of  teaching,  then,  should  be 
chiefly  one  of  imitation  and  practice. 

With  these  remarks  upon  the  correctness  of  the  out- 
line, we  may  dismiss  that  matter,  and  take  the  outline 
as  a  working  basis  for  a  further  discussion  of  the  prob- 
lems of  pedagogy.  An  attempt  has  been  made  through- 
out this  chapter  to  impress  upon  the  learner,  that  the 
general  method  thus  far  set  forth  is  applicable  only  to 
the  subjects  which  present  a  body  of  truths  to  be  compre- 
hended. But  there  is  more  to  the  problem  of  learning 
than  the  single  item  of  comprehension.  Any  subject 
has  been  properly  learned  only  when  three  things  have 
been  accomplished,  —  ( i )  whatever  truth  is  presented 
in  the  subject  must  be  comprehended  by  the  student ; 
(2)  he  must  then  fix  in  mind  what  has  been  compre- 
hended ;  and  (3)  he  must  prepare  to  express  what  has 


134  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

thus  been  fixed  in  mind.  If  the  subject  is  one  that 
offers  a  predominance  of  truths  to  be  mastered,  the 
tendency  on  the  part  of  many  students  and  teachers  is 
to  emphasize  the  first  of  the  above  steps  and  to  neglect 
the  others.  If  it  is  one  that  presents  a  set  of  facts  to  be 
committed  to  memory,  the  tendency  is  to  emphasize  the 
second  step  and  to  neglect  the  others.  In  most  subjects 
the  third  step  is  neglected  entirely  in  the  preparation. 
It  seems  to  receive  attention  only  when  the  study  is  one 
that  requires  in  its  recitation  some  especial  method  of 
delivery,  as  in  declamation  or  singing.  We  may  express 
what  we  have  learned  in  very  many  different  ways,  by 
verbatim  reproduction,  by  reproducing  the  thought  in 
our  language,  by  using  the  truth  in  making  something  in 
the  domain  of  mechanics,  by  using  the  truth  for  the 
preservation  of  health  or  the  enlargement  of  comforts, 
by  a  changed  mode  of  life,  a  better  appreciation  of  art, 
or  a  more  refined  criticism  of  men.  In  some  way  what 
we  learn  should  be  revealing  itself,  and  we  should  soon 
decide  in  which  of  the  many  possible  ways  each  thing  is 
to  find  expression,  and  prepare  in  our  study  to  give  it 
freest  course  along  that  line. 

Special  Processes  in  Teaching  Facts  and  Art. 

Many  plans  may  be  adopted  for  impressing  upon  our 
lives  the  facts  and  the  arts  with  which  the  school  deals. 
The  details  of  these  plans  will  appear  in  the  discussion 
of  the  special  methods  of  teaching  the  various  branches, 
but  a  few  general  guides  may  with  profit  be  given  here. 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD.  135 


Facts. 

1.  When  we  are  aiming  to  commit  to  memory  any 
items  offered  us  for  study,  as  facts  in  history,  the  spell- 
ing of  words,  or  gems  in  literature,  we  should  strive  to 
establish  some  rational  association  between  what  we  are 
learning  and  what  we  already  know. 

2.  Frequent    thoughtful   repetition  should   be   given, 
even  though  rational  bases  of  association  can  be  dis- 
covered.    When  the  items  do  not  contain  any  discover- 
able relations,  the  repetitions  will  need  to  be  all  the  more 
frequent,  and  should  always  be  thoughtful. 

3.  When  the  items  have  become  impressed,  so  that 
with  care  they  can  be  reproduced,  we  should  reproduce 
them  many  times.     It  is  just  as  necessary  to  repeat  this 
process  of  reproduction  as  it  is  to  repeat  the  act  designed 
to  make  the  impression.     Items  thus  impressed  should 
generally  be  reproduced  in  the  way  in  which  they  are 
intended  to  be  used.     If  it  is  the  spelling  of  a  word,  it 
should  generally  be  reproduced  in  writing,  since  it  is  in 
writing  and  not  in  speaking  that  we  need  to  use  spelling. 
If  it  is  a  poem  for  recitation,  it  should  frequently  be 
reproduced  aloud. 

The  truth  to  be  especially  urged  upon  teachers  in  this 
connection  is  that  no  amount  of  reasoning,  or  arguing, 
or  thought  leading  will  avail  in  the  effort  to  impress 
upon  the  memory  of  a  person  the  individual  items  that 
need  to  be  remembered.  We  must  not  consider  the  end 
reached  when  we  have  led  a  child  to  comprehend  even 
the  processes  in  arithmetic ;  there  are  items  in  it  for 


136  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

the  memory,  and  this  must  be  cared  for  in  a  proper 
learning  act,  just  as  faithfully  as  the  earlier  act  of  com- 
prehension. When  the  subject  is  one  made  up  almost 
entirely  of  facts,  rather  than  generalized  truths,  the  pro- 
cess of  impressing  these  items  becomes  the  chief  process, 
in  both  the  studying  and  the  teaching.  The  methods  of 
analysis  and  synthesis  may  be  employed  in  compre- 
hending the  statements  of  complex  facts,  as  in  history, 
and  this  increased  clearness  will  do  much  toward  im- 
pressing the  facts  upon  the -learner;  but  induction  and 
deduction  have  no  significance  whatever  in  this  realm. 
Repetition,  thoughtful  attention,  interest,  and  faithful 
reproduction  are  the  great  agencies  for  impressing  facts. 

Arts. 

i.  To  master  the  arts,  the  one  thing  needful  is  that 
the  learner  shall  perform  the  act  in  which  he  is  expected 
to  grow  skillful.  It  is  true  that  he  should  have  in  mind 
a  definite  idea  of  what  is  to  be  done  before  he  undertakes 
the  doing,  but  the  possession  of  this  idea  will  never 
produce  the  desired  skill.  That  will  come  only  as  the 
result  of  persistent  doing,  and  it  will  come  the  more 
surely  and  swiftly  if  the  doing  is  performed  thoughtfully. 
No  amount  of  reasoning  will  avail  here ;  it  is  not  the 
thinking  that  we  wish  to  influence,  but  rather  the  habits 
of  bodily  activity.  Teaching  in  this  domain  consists  in 
training  the  muscles  and  in  habituating  them  to  certain 
lines  of  action.  The  presence  of  an  idea  is  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  untrammeled  performance  of  a  muscular 
movement. 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD.  137 

2.  Since   there   are   right   ways   and   wrong  ways   of 
performing  all  the  arts,  and   since  the  determination  of 
the  right  is  not  a  matter  that  can  generally  be  left  to 
the  reason  of  the  learner,  it  becomes  imperative  that  the 
teacher  should  set  before   him  proper  models  to  be  fol- 
lowed.    Some  of  these  may  be  taken  from  books,  but 
most  of  them  must  be  obtained  from  the  habitual  activities 
of  the  teacher.     It  is  granted  that  a  teacher  may  develop 
in  pupils  more  skill  in  a  given  art  than  he  himself  pos- 
sesses, but  he  must  be  able  to  show  them  how  properly 
to  set  about  the  performance  of  the  act,  and  he  must 
know  enough  of  the  matter  to  be  able  to  furnish  them 
with  intelligent  criticism  as  they  progress.     His  efficiency 
as   a  teacher  will  also  be  greatly  increased   if,  by  his 
superior  skill,  he  can  lead  and  stimulate  them  to  more 
earnest    endeavor.     The   one    danger    to    be    guarded 
against  is  that  of  doing  for  the  child  what   he  should 
always   do  for  himself.     It  is  a  mistake  to  regard  an 
excellent  product  (a  drawing  or  a  composition),  which 
is  the  outcome  of    the  combined  efforts   of   pupil  and 
teacher,  as  a  sign  of  excellent  teaching. 

3.  Since  the  arts  are  to  be  acquired  through  perform- 
ance on  the  part  of  the  learner,  the  models  should  seldom 
be  presented  to  him  ready-made.     This  is  uniformly  true 
until  the  learner  understands  how  to  proceed,  because 
the  process,  rather  than  the  objective  product,  is  at  this 
stage  the  thing  of  chief  moment.     When  a  task  is  set 
for  the   child   in   writing,   drawing,   gymnastics,  etc.,  it 
should  be  set  for  him  in  his  presence  so  that  he  may  see 
how  the  required  act  is  performed.     As  he  advances  in 
the  art,  and  comes  to  know  much  of  the  rationale  of  it, 


138  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

he  may  be  given  ready-made  lessons  to  perform,  because 
now  he  knows  as  well  as  the  teacher  how  to  proceed, 
and  the  only  thing  he  needs  is  to  proceed  in  that  man- 
ner often  enough  and  carefully  enough  to  establish 
within  his  muscles  the  requisite  skill  in  execution.  A 
teacher's  only  service  now,  aside  from  the  task  of  stimu- 
lating the  learner  to  action,  is  that  of  an  intelligent 
critic. 

The  art  subjects  and  the  fact  subjects  are  alike  in 
certain  important  respects.  Generalizations  play  no 
important  part  in  them,  and,  therefore,  they  are  not 
learned  by  a  process  of  discursive  thought.  Learners 
cannot  be  led  by  processes  of  careful  reasoning  to  master 
their  contents.  They  are  made  up  of  individual,  though 
not  discordant,  items  which  are  to  be  impressed  upon 
the  life  of  the  learner.  Persistent  repetition,  under 
proper  conditions,  is  the  only  means  of  accomplishing 
this  end. 

These  two  sets  of  subjects  differ  from  each  other  in 
one  vital  point.  Facts  are  to  be  impressed  upon  the 
mind  in  their  integrity  as  facts.  The  arts  address  them- 
selves primarily  to  the  body,  and  physical  skill  is  to  be 
the  outcome  of  their  study. 

Finally,  whenever  a  fact  element  or  an  art  element 
appears  in  any  branch  of  learning,  no  matter  whether  it 
is  the  dominant  element  of  the  branch  or  not,  it  must 
be  treated  by  the  learner  as  a  fact  or  an  art.  It  cannot 
be  made  to  submit,  in  the  learning,  to  the  processes 
applicable  to  truth  in  the  form  of  generalizations. 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD.  139 


The  Concrete  and  the  Abstract  in  Teaching. 

(For  a  more  extended  discussion  of  this  subject,  see  W.  H. 
Payne's  "  Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education,"  Chapter  IV.) 

One  other  distinction  in  method  it  seems  necessary  to 
make  with  fullness,  even  though  it  has  been  referred  to 
incidentally  many  times  under  other  names.  One  of  the 
favorite  maxims  of  educational  theorists  is  the  maxim, 
"Proceed  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract."  Many 
times  these  terms  are  not  defined  at  all ;  at  other  times 
they  are  defined  negatively ;  and  usually  there  is  no 
attempt  whatever  made  to  explain  the  mode  of  the 
proceeding. 

By  concrete  teaching  we  mean  teaching  through  the 
use  of  objects  or  other  illustrations,  combined  with 
language. 

By  abstract  teaching  we  mean  teaching  through  the 
use  of  language  alone ;  and  in  the  main  this  language 
expresses  generalizations,  and  not  individual  notions. 

Understanding  these  terms  as  they  are  defined  above, 
and  accepting  the  direction  that  concrete  work  should 
precede  abstract  work,  we  still  find  that  there  are  many 
pertinent  questions  left  unanswered. 

Shall  all  that  is  concrete  in  any  branch  be  given 
before  an  abstract  treatment  of  the  subject  is  begun? 
One  of  the  purposes  of  education  is  to  lift  the  learner's 
mind  above  the  realm  of  pure  sense — to  "  unsense  the 
mind ' '  —  and  to  enable  him  to  reach  the  realm  of 
science  and  of  pure  truth.  To  accomplish  this,  objects 
must  be  employed  as  means  to  the  higher  end,  and  not 


I4O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

as  ends  of  study  in  themselves.  The  abstract  portion 
of  any  division  of  a  subject  which  contains  both  may, 
therefore,  be  taken  up  just  as  soon  as  enough  of  the  con- 
crete has  been  used  to  make  it  intelligible.  Further 
reference  to  the  concrete  aspect  is  unnecessary,  unless 
it  is  found  that  the  abstract  is  not  sufficiently  clear, 
when  a  return  to  the  concrete  is  the  most  certain  means 
of  securing  such  clearness.  It  is  important,  however, 
not  to  tarry  unnecessarily  upon  concrete  instances,  but  to 
leave  them  and  test  the  child's  concepts  again  and  again, 
until,  under  varied  circumstances,  he  shows  that  they  are 
correct.  There  are  enough  of  what  we  might  call  mate- 
rial sciences  to  give  to  the  child  all  the  sense  training  he 
needs.  Whenever  a  subject  has  an  abstract  portion, 
therefore,  we  should  use  the  concrete  only  as  a  means 
of  giving  substance  to  the  study.  Thus  the  language 
will  become  intelligible  through  the  use  of  objects. 
This  done,  we  should  aim  to  make  the  learner  able  to 
get  truth  through  the  language.  We  would  not  have 
children  read  about  such  things  as  they  should  see,  hear, 
touch,  etc. ;  but  we  would  have  them  become  able  to 
extend  their  knowledge,  to  supplement  their  sense  activ- 
ity, by  the  proper  use  of  books.  Besides,  there  are 
many  subjects,  as  mathematics,  civic  relations,  etc., 
which  can  never  be  known  by  him  who  is  confined  to 
sense  activity.  Their  truths  are  abstractions,  and  can 
be  apprehended  only  in  thought.  The  instrument  of 
thinking  is  language. 

Another  important  item  relates  to  the  mode  of  transi- 
tion from  the  purely  concrete  to  the  purely  abstract  in 
teaching.  This  should  be  a  gradiial  change,  as  a  growth 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD.  14! 

or  evolution.  As  soon  as  a  new  truth  has  been  pre- 
sented through  the  use  of  objects,  we  should  give  the 
child  an  opportunity  to  try  pursuing  it  further  without 
the  aid  of  things.  If  we  find  him  able  to  do  this,  we 
need  not  return  to  objects  until  we  wish  to  open  up 
another  truth.  And,  even  in  the  introduction  of  new 
topics,  the  child  will  in  time  get  beyond  the  need  of 
objects,  because  his  power  of  employing  language  is  con- 
stantly increasing.  Endeavoring  to  give  children  only 
concrete  work  for  a  period  of  weeks,  and  then  attempting 
to  turn  them  at  once  into  an  exclusive  use  of  abstract 
thought,  will  be  to  have  them  entering  upon  the  realm 
of  the  abstract  as  mental  cripples,  and  without  support. 
The  only  difference  between  childhood  and  manhood  in 
regard  to  these  methods  is  a  difference  in  the  predomi- 
nant element.  Both  methods  should  be  employed  always. 
From  childhood,  where  the  concrete  predominates,  the 
child  should  gradually  grow  to  where  the  abstract  pre- 
dominates; and  this  change  in  his  type  of  thought 
should  be  no  more  sudden  than  the  change  in  his  phys- 
ical nature.  He  should  not  be  able  to  point  to  any 
period  of  time  and  say,  "  That  is  where  I  quit  concrete 
work  and  took  up  the  abstract " ;  but  he  should  be 
brought  to  discover  himself  in  the  employment  of  a 
predominance  of  abstract  thought  much  as  he  discovers 
himself  grown  to  manhood. 

The  objection  is  sometimes  raised  that  in  breaking 
down  any  other  habit  we  will  not  allow  "tapering  off," 
but  will  recommend  as  sudden  a  reversal  of  conduct  as 
possible  and  a  most  persistent  continuance  in  the  new 
way.  Of  habits  in  general  this  is  true,  but  the  transi- 


142  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

tion  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  in  thinking  or 
teaching,  is  a  transition  (growth)  from  one  good  to  a 
higher  good  dependent  upon  it ;  while  in  changing  habits, 
as  generally  understood,  we  are  bringing  about  a  change 
from  a  bad  to  a  good.  Abstract  methods  of  teaching 
cannot  be  successfully  employed  unless  they  are  based 
upon  the  results  of  related  concrete  work ;  good  habits 
can  be  formed  without  having  been  preceded  by  related 
bad  ones,  and,  if  the  bad  ones  have  existed,  it  is  upon 
their  ruins  that  the  related  good  ones  must  be  built  up. 

When  we  consider  the  language  employed  in  teaching, 
we  find  that  it  represents  varying  degrees  of  abstract- 
ness,  and  hence  of  difficulty  for  learners.  A  statement 
may  be  about  a  single  present  thing,  and  about  only  one 
sense  quality  in  it ;  it  may  be  about  a  single  but  absent 
thing  ;  it  may  be  about  one  thing,  but  have  reference  to 
attributes  apprehended  only  in  thought ;  it  may  refer 
to  a  class  of  things  ;  or  it  may  have  reference  to  an 
abstract  idea. 

These  different  types  may  be  illustrated  as  follows  :  — 

1.  This  picture  is  dark. 

2.  That  picture  was  dark. 

3.  This  picture  is  beautiful. 

4.  Pictures  are  colored. 

5.  Pictures  are  fascinating. 

6.  True  beauty  is  a  quality  worthy  of  cultivation. 

It  should  be  remembered  that,  when  a  child  is  able  to 
fully  understand  and  appreciate  the  first  of  the  above 
sentences,  he  may  yet  be  unable  to  appreciate  the  last, 
and  that  merely  because  of  its  abstractness.  To  prepare 
him  for  an  intelligent  use  of  sentences  like  the  last  is  no 


DISTINCTIONS    OF    METHOD.  143 

easy  task,  but  in  no  other  place  can  the  teacher  reveal 
more  of  the  qualities  of  the  true  artist  than  in  this.  It 
will  be  well  for  the  children  if,  in  this  connection,  teach- 
ers will  all  observe  carefully  the  advice  given  by  Jean 
Paul  Richter  in  the  Seventh  Fragment  of  his  "  Levana  "  : 
-  "  Always  employ  a  language  some  years  in  advance  of 
the  child ;  speak  to  the  one-year-old  child  as  though  he 
were  two,  and  to  him  as  though  he  were  six."  It  must 
not  be  inferred  from  this  that  the  teacher  should  use  a 
language  so  many  years  in  advance  of  the  child  as  to 
render  it  meaningless  to  him,  but  that  he  should  by 
careful  study  find  the  plane  upon  which  the  child  speaks, 
and  then  strive  to  lead  him  to  a  higher  plane  by  a  judi- 
cious advance.  Frequent  reading  and  explanation  of 
well-selected  literature  will  do  much  toward  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  important  end. 


144  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 


CHAPTER    XII. 
THE   ACTUAL  REALITIES  OF   SCHOOL   SUBJECTS. 

A  TEACHER  of  considerable  prominence,  replying  to 
an  inquiry,  was  once  heard  to  remark,  "  We  are  not  yet 
studying  physiology  ;  we  are  studying  the  human  body." 
In  this  odd  reply  there  is  contained  much  of  sound  wis- 
dom. Physiology  is  regarded  as  the  science  of  the  hu- 
man body  ;  science  is  an  orderly  arrangement  of  facts 
about  some  definite  thing,  made  for  the  purpose  of  allow- 
ing generalizations  ;  so  physiology  is  here  regarded  as 
an  orderly  arrangement  of  facts  about  the  human  body. 
This  teacher  took  the  actual  human  body  and  made 
observations  upon  it  ;  afterwards  the  facts  thus  learned 
were  put  into  order,  —  made  into  a  science.  Much  current 
practice  consists  in  reading  books  about  plants,  animals, 
minerals,  the  earth,  the  forces  of  nature,  and  man,  with- 
out bringing  pupils  into  vital  touch  with  the  different 
realities  about  which  these  books  treat.  It  is  the  pur- 
pose of  this  chapter  to  show  the  necessity  of  an  appeal 
to  the  actual  reality  of  each  school  subject,  for  purposes 
of  clearness  ;  to  point  out  what  are  the  realities  of  the 
several  branches  ;  and  to  show  how  this  appeal  may  be 
made. 

In  the  main,  language  expresses  a  body  of  generaliza- 
tions, and  such  generalizations  are  best  comprehended 
through  the  medium  of  individual  "  things  "  that  are  em- 
braced in  them.  Any  practice,  therefore,  which  causes 


THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.        145 

the  child  to  deal  with  generalizations,  and  does  not  first 
familiarize  him  with  the  realities  about  which  the  gen- 
eralizations are  formed,  is  a  practice  that  challenges  his 
efforts  without  offering  him  a  probability  of  success,  and 
hence  thwarts  development,  leads  to  confusion,  and  ends 
in  discouragement  and  defeat. 

Again,  in  most  of  the  school  subjects  language  is  only 
the  medium  of  learning,  and  not  the  real  subject  matter 
about  which  the  student  is  concerned.  Directing  the 
attention  from  the  first  to  books  in  such  subjects  is  like 
striving  to  build  up  the  system  by  going  through  the 
processes  of  eating  without  taking  any  actual  food  into 
the  body ;  or  like  aiming  to  become  familiar  with  the 
home  life  and  environment  of  a  people  by  meeting  with 
their  representatives  abroad.  Both  must  result  in  fail- 
ure, and  can  at  best  only  put  on  the  show  of  an  empty 
conceit. 

Finally,  this  language,  like  a  map  but  unlike  a  good 
picture,  is  but  an  arbitrary  symbol  of  the  real  truth  for 
which  it  stands.  Unless  the  student  has  come  into 
touch  with  the  real  thing  itself  that  is  under  study,  or 
with  such  related  realities  as  will  enable  him  by  aid  of 
his  constructive  imagination  to  supply  the  lack  of  a  vital 
touch  with  the  actual,  he  will  confront  the  same  diffi- 
culty in  reading  a  book  that  a  person  would,  who  should 
undertake  to  tell  the  color  of  an  absent  stranger's  eyes 
by  simply  hearing  his  name  announced. 

Nothing  short  of  some  miraculous  prevision  will  make 
it  possible  to  accomplish  either  ;  and,  since  our  teaching 
plans  are  not  to  rest  for  their  success  upon  miraculous 
intervention,  it  would  seem  wise  not  to  rely  upon  Ian- 


146 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 


guage  as  a  means  of  learning  before  rendering  that  lan- 
guage significant. 

All  this  prepares  the  way  for  the  announcement  of 
the  following  guides  :  — 

In  so  far  as  it  is  practicable  in  teaching,  tJie  actual  real- 
ity treated  in  each  branch  of  study  should  be  brought,  at 
the  outset,  directly  before  the  mind  of  the  learner. 

The  product  secured  through  such  direct  study  should 
be  compared  with  the  products  secured  by  the  other  pupils 
through  a  similar  method  of  study. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  "  actual  realities  "  are 
not  necessarily  material  things.  '  In  some  studies  they 
are,  while  in  others  the  realities  are  words,  actions,  or 
even  abstract  thoughts.  That  of  which  the  branch 
treats  is  the  actual  reality  of  any  school  branch.  The 
following  tabular  statement  will  doubtless  serve  best  to 
bring  this  before  the  mind.  In  connection  with  the 
statement  of  the  actual  reality  of  each  of  the  school  sub- 
jects named,  there  will  be  given  a  statement  of  the  unit 
of  the  subject.  This  is  a  matter  that  needs  to  be  settled 
before  we  can  determine  the  point  of  departure  in  teach- 
ing each  of  the  subjects,  and  before  we  can  systemat- 
ically apply  the  methods  discussed  in  Chapter  XI. 


SUBJECT. 

ACTUAL  REALITY. 

UNIT  OF  THE 
SUBJECT. 

Primary  Reading. 
Advanced  Reading. 

Spelling. 

Word  forms  as  they  appear  in  sen- 
tences and  selections. 
Word  forms  as  they  appear  in  sen- 
tences and  selections,  and  also  the 
actual  processes  of  expressive 
utterance;  not  definitions  about 
pitch,  slides,  emphasis,  etc. 
Words.     (Oral  or  written.) 

A  sentence. 

A  selection,  or  an 
extract    long 
enough  to  reveal 
a  state  of  the  au- 
thor's mind. 
A  word. 

THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS. 


SUBJECT. 


ACTUAL  REALITY. 


UNIT  OF  THE 
SUBJECT. 


Language  Lessons. 
Grammar. 

Literature. 
Arithmetic. 


Introductory    Geog- 
raphy. 


Systematic 
phy. 

History. 


Geogra- 


Physiology. 
Drawing. 


Writing. 


Vocal  Music. 


The  child's  spoken  and  written  lan- 
guage ;  not  definitions  or  material 
things. 

The  child's  spoken  and  written  lan- 
guage ;  not  definitions  or  material 
things. 


Actual  productions  of  authors ;  not 
statements  about  authors  and  their 
works. 

Numbers  and  operations  with  num- 
bers; not  figures  or  material 
things. 

Real  things  in  the  material  world 
about  us. 


The  earth  (surface)  and  its  present 
inhabitants;  not  globes,  maps, 
pictures,  etc. 

Actual  deeds  of  men  in  life,  writings, 
etc.;  not  book  statements  about 
them. 

The  human  body;  not  book  state- 
ments about  it. 

Actual  productions,  and  the  bodily 
movements  required  to  make 
them. 


Letter  forms,  and  the  bodily  move- 
ments required  to  make  them. 


Tones  and  tone  production ;    not 
definitions,  rules,  etc. 


A  sentence.  (The 
purpose  here  is 
to  form  proper 
language  habits.) 

A  sentence.  (The 
purpose  here  is 
the  mastery  of  a 
thought  and  its 
correct  expres- 
sion.) 

An  entire  selec- 
tion ;  not  an  ex- 
tract. 

A  problem. 


Single  things  which 
are  to  serve  as 
the  basis  on 
which  definitions 
are  to  be  framed. 

The  earth;  not  a 
limited  portion 
of  it. 

An  epoch  in  human 
experience. 

The  body. 

Objects.  (The 
type  forms  to  be 
learned  through 
these  because  of 
the  motive  worth 
of  objects.) 

Letters.  (Pre- 
sented in  words 
because  of  the 
motive  worth  of 
words.) 

A  song.  (To  be 
learned  first  by 
rote  so  as  to  show 
the  worth  of  the 
scale.) 


14$  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY, 

Probably  in  some  minds  there  will  arise  a  question  as 
to  the  reasonableness  of  considering  the  earth  as  the 
unit  of  the  subject  of  systematic  geography  and  the  body 
as  the  unit  of  physiology,  but  only  an  epoch  in  human 
experience  as  the  unit  of  history.  If  we  are  right  with 
respect  to  geography  and  physiology,  why  should  we 
not  regard  the  entire  record  of  man's  doings  as  the  unit 
of  history  ? 

If  in  geography  we  take  a  continent  or  any  other  por- 
tion of  the  earth  as  the  unit,  the  one  prominent  element 
of  systematic  geography  —  location  —  cannot  be  known 
till  we  push  our  inquiry  up  to  the  limit  of  the  earth.  So 
in  physiology,  if  we  take  an  organ,  say  the  eye,  as  the 
unit,  we  cannot  know  its  functions  till  we  consider  the 
brain,  circulation,  etc.,  up  to  the  limit  of  the  entire  body. 
In  both  of  these  cases  we  have  at  the  upper  limit  (the 
earth  in  geography,  the  body  in  physiology)  a  complete 
and  finished  unit,  which  is  that  about  which  the  branch 
treats.  In  geography  there  is  but  one  such  unit  ;  in 
physiology  all  those  in  the  universe  are  similar  to  the 
one  studied. 

History,  on  the  other  hand,  presents  no  such  complete 
and  finished  thing.  So  far  as  completeness  is  concerned, 
history  is  yet  an  unmade  thing.  There  is  no  whole  of 
it  which  is  simply  undergoing  change,  as  is  true  with 
the  earth  and  with  the  human  body ;  it  is  simply  being 
made  and  will  continue  to  be  made  as  long  as  mankind 
lives  and  acts.  For  this  reason  we  regard  an  epoch  in 
human  experience  as  the  unit  of  history,  even  though  it 
is  understood  that  one  epoch  cannot  be  comprehended 
except  in  the  light  of  others  closely  enough  related  to  it 
to  have  an  appreciable  effect  upon  it. 


THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.        149 

Primary  reading  is  not  so  much  for  the  purpose  of  get- 
ting thought  and  thus  learning  new  truth,  as  it  is  for  the 
purpose  of  furnishing  one  with  the  arbitrary  instruments 
whereby  thought  may  be  acquired  in  the  future.  Just 
now  the  child  is  supposed  to  have  the  thought  and  also 
the  oral  means  of  expressing  it ;  the  aim  is  to  provide 
for  him  the  corresponding  written  forms  of  expression, 
and  to  make  him  familiar  with  those  forms.  The  sen- 
tence (not  word  or  letter)  is  regarded  as  the  unit  of  the 
subject,  because  a  sentence  is  the  smallest  language  ele- 
ment that  expresses  a  complete  thought. 

The  art  of  expressive  utterance  of  new  truths  is  a 
matter  that  should  follow  the  above,  and  it  is  the  thing 
aimed  at  throughout  advanced  reading.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  primary  reading  merges  imperceptibly  into 
advanced  reading,  and  that  between  them  there  is  no 
sharp  line  of  demarkation.  When  expressive  utterance 
forms  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  the  work  in  reading,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  element  of  feeling  contained  in  the 
selection  to  be  read,  and  not  merely  the  thought  or  truth, 
should  be  fully  considered.  Because  of  this  we  regard 
the  selection,  or  a  sufficiently  long  extract,  as  the  unit  of 
the  subject  of  advanced  reading,  since  the  feeling  cannot 
be  set  forth  in  the  isolated  sentences  of  a  selection,  even 
if  the  thought  can.  The  prime  aim  of  reading  as  a 
schoolroom  art,  even  in  the  most  advanced  grades,  is  the 
formation  of  a  habit  of  proper  utterance,  not  the  mastery 
of  a  body  of  doctrine.  In  so  far  as  a  body  of  doctrine 
is  dealt  with  at  all,  it  should  be  simply  as  a  means  of 
furnishing  the  pupil  with  that  which  will  render  him  in- 
dependent of  the  teacher's  help  in  the  wise  exercise  of 
his  acquired  habit. 


I5O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

In  spelling,  the  chief  aim  is  to  impress  words  either 
as  forms  or  as  sounds ;  spelling  has  nothing  to  do  with 
word  meanings.  It  is  very  important  that  children 
should  learn  to  know  the  meanings  of  the  words  they 
spell,  but  this  is  no  part  of  the  spelling  exercise.  It 
simply  emphasizes  the  intimacy  of  the  several  school 
subjects,  and  impresses  the  value  of  rational  correlation 
in  teaching.  Whenever  letters  come  up  for  study  as 
they  do  in  spelling,  it  is  well  for  us  to  know  that  there 
are  three  things  to  learn  about  them,  —  their  names, 
sounds,  and  forms,  giving  rise  respectively  to  what  are 
familiarly  called  oral,  phonic,  and  written  spelling. 
Words  have  value  merely  as  the  representatives  of  ideas  ; 
letters  are  valueless  excepting  as  the  pieces  which,  when 
properly  put  together,  form  words.  As  language,  letters 
have  no  significance  in  themselves,  but  only  as  the  parts 
of  words.  It  is  because  of  this  that  the  word,  and  fiot  the 
letter,  is  regarded  as  the  unit  of  the  subject  of  spelling. 

Language  lessons  are  frequently  looked  upon  as  being 
merely  elementary  grammar  with  a  distinct  name.  This 
error  has  doubtless  been  a  fruitful  cause  of  much  mis- 
taken practice  in  the  teaching  of  elementary  language. 
The  purposes  of  language  lessons  and  formal  grammar 
are  as  different  as  are  the  purposes  of  any  two  subjects 
in  the  curriculum.  And  this  difference  of  purpose,  as 
will  be  readily  seen,  gives  rise  to  the  necessity  of  treat- 
ing them  in  a  very  different  manner. 

Language  lessons  deal  with  the  actual  speech  and  writ- 
ings of  pupils,  and  not  with  formal  definitions.  Such 
definitions  announce  the  net  result  of  a  long  and  severe 
process  of  classification  applied  to  the  language  itself. 


THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.        151 

Neither  do  they  have  to  do  with  material  things,  except- 
ing as  such  things  may  be  used  as  the  occasion  of  the 
thinking  which  will  determine  speech  and  writing.  So 
far  formal  grammar  is  similar  to  the  language  lesson. 
Again,  since  the  smallest  language  element  that  repre- 
sents a  thought  is  a  sentence,  and  since  no  expressions 
divorced  from  thought  constitute  a  language,  we  con- 
clude that  the  sentence  is  the  unit  of  study  for  language 
lessons  as  well  as  for  formal  grammar.  But  here  the 
resemblance  ends.  The  purpose  of  language  lessons  is 
the  formation  of  correct  habits  of  speech  and  writing. 
These  habits,  like  all  habits,  can  be  formed  only  by  re- 
peatedly performing  the  appropriate  activities,  and  not 
by  studying  definitions  about  them.  Language  lessons, 
therefore,  emphasize  the  art  side  of  language,  and  not 
the  science  side.  To  be  successful  they  must  mold  the 
language  mechanism  so  that  it  will  be  correct  in  speech 
and  writing  without  the  person's  being  compelled  to 
think  why.  This  can  be  accomplished  to  a  very  marked 
degree  through  imitation  and  repetition  with  needed  cor- 
rections, without  the  child  so  much  as  knowing  that 
there  is  any  reason  why.  As  he  advances  and  begins 
to  learn  from  his  formal  grammar  the  sets  of  rules  of 
syntax,  he  will  be  intelligently  fortifying  himself  in  line 
with  the  proper  habits  which  by  that  time  have  become 
fixed.  Then  he  will  have  in  his  possession  the  data 
that  will  enable  him  to  form  new  habits  or  to  correct 
any  improper  old  ones.  But  the  possession  of  such  data 
will  not  modify  his  speech  in  the  least ;  that  can  be 
accomplished  only  by  applying  such  data,  or,  failing  to 
possess  it,  by  imitating  the  good  example  of  others. 


152  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  purpose  of  formal  grammar 
is  to  give  one  a  mastery  of  the  structure  of  the  language. 
It  makes  its  chief  appeal  to  the  thought,  not  to  the 
power  of  imitation.  It  presents,  primarily,  a  body  of 
doctrine  to  be  comprehended,  not  a  set  of  rules  to  be 
applied.  It  emphasizes  the  science  side  of  language, 
not  the  art  side.  No  blind  or  even  intelligent  imitation 
is  of  avail  here ;  nor  will  any  formal  recitation  of  un- 
comprehended  definitions  or  formulas  assist.  Every- 
thing that  is  to  be  of  service  must  be  grasped  by  the 
understanding  of  the  pupil.  Classifications  are  now  to 
be  made  and  generalizations  to  be  formed.  These  will 
find  their  appropriate  expression  in  definitions,  rules, 
and  laws.  This  clearly  necessitates  the  use  of  actual 
speech  and  writing  as  the  reality  which  grammar  treats. 
Book  statements  in  the  form  of  definitions  and  laws 
about  the  structure  of  the  language  can  never  supply 
the  place  of  the  language  itself,  which  will  reveal  its 
structure.  A  great  language  system  is  now  to  be  estab- 
lished and  understood  ;  then  it  is  to  be  committed  to 
memory.  The  application  of  these  generalizations  will 
give  us  our  formal  composition  work,  which  is  to  supple- 
ment the  theoretical  side  of  grammar.  In  such  work 
we  return  to  the  method  and  the  aim  of  the  language 
lesson,  only  now  our  practice  is  guided  by  an  under- 
standing of  the  structure  of  the  language,  whose  use  is 
to  add  to  mere  accuracy  the  beauty  of  an  elevated  style. 

Primarily  the  language  lesson  aims  at  teaching  us  to 
speak  and  write  the  language  correctly,  while  formal 
grammar  aims  at  giving  us  a  comprehensive  mastery  of 
the  rational  structure  of  the  language.  In  the  light  of 


THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.        I  $3 

this  comprehension  of  the  structure  of  the  language  we 
may,  by  sufficient  practice  and  not  as  the  necessary  con- 
sequence of  our  knowledge,  fortify  and  further  beautify 
the  speech  and  writing  which  have  become  crystallized 
into  habits. 

Much  of  the  current  practice  in  the  study  of  litera- 
ture consists  in  learning  the  names  of  literary  charac- 
ters, their  place  of  birth  and  perhaps  of  death,  something 
of  their  mode  of  life,  the  names  of  their  writings,  and 
finally  a  few  selections  taken  from  their  actual  works. 
All  of  this  it  is  well  to  know,  but  most  of  it  is  not  litera- 
ture. The  actual  writings  of  men  constitute  the  reality 
of  literature.  These  should  be  brought  to  the  atten- 
tion of  pupils,  their  lessons  revealed,  their  beauties  dis- 
closed, and  upon  them  should  be  centered  a  strong 
interest.  From  this  may  spring  the  desire  to  know  the 
men  who  wrote,  and  also  to  know  the  opinions  which 
others  have  entertained  of  their  writings.  Then  is  the 
time  to  study  the  author's  biography  and  also  the  criti- 
cisms others  have  written  of  his  works.  When  the 
study  of  literature  is  viewed  in  this  light,  our  next 
inquiry  is  for  the  unit  of  the  study,  so  that  we  may  de- 
termine the  mode  of  procedure  in  the  study  of  actual 
writings.  Since  the  truth  of  an  entire  production  often 
greatly  modifies  our  interpretation  of  individual  sen- 
tences in  it;  and,  since  the  prevailing  sentiment  of  a 
selection  never  can  be  appreciated  by  considering  its 
isolated  parts,  we  conclude  that  the  unit  of  study 
in  literature  is  the  entire  selection,  and  that  in 
teaching  it  one  of  the  first  things  to  do  is  to  read 
the  entire  selection,  so  that  the  class  may  apprehend  it 


154  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

as  the  definite  thing  to  be  analyzed  and  otherwise 
studied,  until  it  is  comprehended  and  its  treasures  ap- 
propriated. 

In  arithmetic  many  difficulties  confront  us  because 
much  arithmetical  language  has  a  double  application, 
and  because  in  arithmetic  we  have  to  do  with  the  most 
difficult  abstraction  that  the  primary  pupils  are  com- 
pelled to  attack.  It  signifies  but  little  to  many  minds 
when  they  are  told  that  arithmetic  is  not  a  science  of 
figures  nor  of  material  things,  but  of  numbers.  Just 
how  the  number  idea  differs  from  figures  and  from 
things,  we  shall  not  discuss  in  this  place.  (It  will  be 
treated  in  the  chapter  on  "  Arithmetic.")  Here  it  must 
suffice  to  say,  that  when  we  study  arithmetic  we  are 
not  studying  primarily  the  characters  i,  2,  3,  4,  etc., 
nor  are  we  studying  peas,  beans,  sticks,  numeral  frames, 
etc.  We  are  studying  numbers,  and  these  things  are 
the  visible  means  by  which  we  do  it.  As  well  might 
one  assert  that  in  the  process  of  nourishing  the  body 
we  eat  knives,  forks,  spoons,  dishes,  etc.,  as  to  assert 
that  in  nourishing  the  arithmetical  faculty  we  study 
figures  and  objects.  The  real  thing  to  be  secured 
in  arithmetic  is  the  knowledge  of  numbers  and  the 
operations  performed  with  them  ;  and  in  doing  this  we 
are  compelled  to  resort  to  visible  aids,  in  order  that  we 
may  give  to  the  fleeting  ideas  of  the  child  a  kind  of 
permanence  by  establishing  a  material  representative  of 
them.  The  danger  of  substituting  in  our  thought  the 
representative  (figure)  for  the  thing  represented  (num- 
ber) is  increased  because  of  the  fact  that  the  represen- 
tative is  a  perceivable  thing,  and  is  therefore  easier,  and 


THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.        1 55 

because  of  the  fact  that  it  takes  the  same  name  as  the 
thing  it  represents.  We  speak  of  three,  four,  five,  etc., 
meaning  the  numbers  and  also  meaning  the  figures. 

What  now  is  the  unit  of  this  subject  whose  reality  is 
number  ?  When  these  number  ideas  are  made  explicit 
to  the*  child  through  the  help  of  objects,  so  that  he 
knows  what  we  mean  when  we  speak  of  two,  three,  or 
four,  we  are  prepared  to  carry  on  the  study  of  their 
relations,  and  to  consider  the  operations  of  which  they 
are  capable.  But  when  conditions  are  offered  which 
call  for  the  employment  of  these  operations  we  have 
problems ;  hence,  we  conclude  that  a  problem  is  the 
unit  of  arithmetical  study.  All  that  precedes  the  con- 
sideration of  the  problem  —  the  development  of  the  dif- 
ferent number  ideas  —  is  merely  so  much  necessary 
preparation  for  the  study  of  the  science  of  arithmetic. 
Arithmetical  problems  are  now  to  be  analyzed ;  and  the 
results  secured  by  such  operation  are  to  be  taken  as  the 
data  from  which  rules,  etc.,  are  to  be  inductively  de- 
veloped. These  rules  are  in  their  turn  to  be  deductively 
applied  to  the  solution  of  new  but  similar  problems. 
Now  we  are  positively  to  worfc  by  rule,  because  we  have 
intelligently  developed  the  rule  as  a  means  of  future 
economy.  The  only  legitimate  objection  that  can  be 
made  to  working  by  rule  is  the  objection  to  mechanical 
employment  of  rules  that  are  not  comprehended. 

For  the  sake  of  intelligent  treatment  we  have  divided 
the  subject  of  geography  into  two  divisions.  In  the 
first,  called  introductory  geography,  we  aim  at  the  de- 
velopment of  geographical  general  notions;  in  the 
second,  called  systematic  geography,  we  aim  at  mak- 


156  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

ing  the  learner  familiar  with  the  details  of  the  several 
parts  of  that  great  geographical  unit,  the  earth. 

It  is  evident  that  the  actual  realities  of  which  intro- 
ductory geography  treats  are  the  real  things  in  the 
material  world  about  us,  and  not  definitions.  The 
child  should,  from  the  outset,  be  directed  to  look  about 
him  and  observe  the  hills,  mountains,  valleys,  rivers, 
cities,  clouds,  rain,  hail,  snow,  etc.,  and  not  be  encour- 
aged to  think  that  geography  is  a  subject  whose  ma- 
terial is  to  be  found  within  the  compass  of  a  certain 
book.  The  use  of  a  book  becomes  an  indispensable 
adjunct  to  the  study  of  things,  because  no  child's  sur- 
roundings will  furnish  him  with  specimens  of  all  the 
geographical  elements  about  which  he  must  learn  ;  but 
the  verbal  descriptions  found  in  a  book  become  intelli- 
gible to  the  child  who  has  in  mind  a  sufficient  amount 
of  suitable  data  to  enable  his  imagination  to  work  with 
security.  The. point  at  issue  is  that  the  child  should  be 
immediately  impressed  with  the  true  idea  that  geography 
is  about  the  actual  things  which  surround  him,  and  is 
not  an  exercise  in  language.  He  should  early  form  the 
habit  of  projecting  his  geographical  ideas  into  real 
space,  and  not  into  a  book.  Geographical  terms  must 
become  the  signs  of  actual  things,  and  not  be  regarded 
merely  as  words  with  verbal  definitions  attached  to 
them.  In  this  view,  the  verbal  definition  becomes  the 
mere  summing  up  of  the  results  of  our  inductive  study 
of  things.  It  is  the  end  aimed  at  in  introductory 
geography  rather  than  the  point  of  departure  in  the 
study.  If  the  actual  reality  in  this  division  of  geogra- 
phy is  the  body  of  geographical  things  about  us,  then  a 


THE  ACTUAL  REALITIES  OF  SCHOOL  SUBJECTS.   157 

single  real  thing  becomes  the  unit  of  the  subject.  This 
mountain,  this  river,  this  island,  or  this  bay  is  to  form 
the  unit  of  study,  and  from  such  study  we  are  to  de- 
velop the  general  notion  mountain,  river,  island,  or  bay. 
The  manner  of  treating  these  several  things  is  an  all- 
important  matter  in  this  connection.  A  child  may  look 
upon  any  one  of  the  natural  divisions  of  land  or  water 
and  withal  not  know  what  such  a  thing  is,  when  asked,  or 
not  know  another  of  the  same  class  when  he  sees  it.  A 
Pennsylvania  educator  was  at  one  time  passing  along 
the  bank  of  a  river,  and  from  the  car  window  he  called 
his  five-year-old  son's  attention  to  a  beautiful,  grass- 
covered  island  in  midstream,  at  the  same  time  giving 
him  the  name,  island.  Presently  they  approached  an- 
other and  the  little  fellow  asked  what  it  was.  Upon 
being  told  that  it  was  an  island,  he  immediately  re- 
marked, "But,  papa,  where  is  the  grass?"  The  child's 
attention  had  been  centered  upon  that  which  was  to 
him  the  most  conspicuous  feature  in  the  object  before 
him.  Just  so  it  is  likely  to  be  in  every  instance,  unless 
those  who  teach  direct  the  learner's  thought  and  obser- 
vation to  the  features  that  make  the  thing  in  question 
one  of  a  certain  class.  If  it  is  an  island  that  is  the 
object  of  study,  and  the  aim  is  to  develop  a  general 
notion  and  formulate  a  definition,  then  the  size,  shape, 
vegetation,  etc.,  should  receive  no  attention  whatever ; 
the  whole  mental  energy  should  be  expended  upon  those 
elements  which  constitute  it  an  island ;  namely,  that  it 
is  a  portion  of  land  entirely  surrounded  by  water. 

In   systematic   geography   the    actual    reality  is   the 
earth,     The  use  of  globes,  maps,  etc,,  is  a  real  neces- 


15  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

sity,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  these  things  are 
only  the  instruments  that  are  to  aid  us  in  comprehend- 
ing the  facts  about  the  real  world.  Geographical  direc- 
tion is  not  toward  the  top,  bottom,  or  sides  of  a  map  ; 
it  is  the  line  or  course  upon  the  earth  in  which  anything 
is  lying  or  pointing.  These  courses,  which  are  upon 
the  earth,  must  be  represented  upon  the  maps,  and  the 
usual  plan  is  to  represent  the  north  upon  a  line  extend- 
ing toward  the  top  of  the  page,  the  south  upon  a  line 
extending  toward  the  bottom  of  the  page,  etc.,  though 
this  is  not  an  invariable  rule.  This  view  respecting  the 
actual  reality  in  systematic  geography  will  doubtless  be 
readily  conceded ;  the  position  to  be  taken  with  refer- 
ence to  the  unit  of  study  may  require  more  careful 
thought. 

Having  developed,  in  the  introductory  stage,  the 
geographical  general  concepts  —  the  definitions  of  geo- 
graphical terms  —  we  are  now  ready  to  proceed  with  a 
detailed  consideration  of  the  geographical  unit,  the 
earth,  in  the  construction  of  which  there  is  a  certain 
definite  number  of  countries,  oceans,  states,  cities, 
rivers,  islands,  etc.,  each  one  having  its  fixed  location, 
its  exact  size,  its  utility,  and  many  other  distinguishing 
features.  Now  none  of  these  can  become  to  the  chil- 
dren objects  of  personal,  finished  observation.  The 
river,  the  township,  or  the  city  can  be  seen  by  the  child 
only  in  part,  and  must,  therefore,  be  studied  through  its 
representative  on  the  map.  The  difficulty  of  compre- 
hending, in  his  childish  way,  an  entire  state  through  its 
map  is  not  more  formidable  than  the  difficulty  of  com- 
prehending a  single  township  through  its  map.  On  the 


THE   ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.      159 

same  principle,  the  child  may  be  expected  to  get  a  just, 
though  vague,  notion  of  the  earth  in  its  entirety  through 
the  help  of  a  globe.  Of  course  we  must  expect  the 
child  to  know  proportionately  less  of  the  details  of  a 
state  than  of  his  home  township,  less  of  the  country 
than  of  his  home  state.  But  this  is  true  simply  because 
there  are  more  of  them  to  be  known,  and  because  they 
present  greater  variety  and  more  of  newness.  Time 
and  extended  effort  will  correct  this  matter,  and  it  must 
be  corrected  for  most  of  us  in  the  same  manner  for  our 
home  state  as  it  is  for  the  most  distant  country ;  namely, 
through  the  study  of  representatives,  such  as  maps, 
globes,  verbal  descriptions,  specimens  of  products,  etc. 
The  important  thing  for  teachers  to  keep  in  mind, 
therefore,  is  the  fact  that  they  must  constantly  remind 
the  learner  that  these  maps  and  globes  stand  for  real 
things  such  as  he  can  look  about  him  and  see,  and  that 
these  realities  are  located  at  certain  definite  places  upon 
the  earth.  This  being  true,  the  claim  that  we  should 
begin  systematic  geography  with  the  near  and  proceed 
synthetically  to  the  more  remote,  because  then  we  can 
employ  observation  at  the  outset,  seems  to  be  without 
force.  That  observation  should  be  at  the  foundation  of 
our  study  of  geography  is  certain,  but  its  purpose  is  to 
acquaint  us  with  the  nature  of  things  so  that  we  may 
thereby  develop  correct  geographical  general  concepts  — 
know  just  what  an  island  is  and  a  river,  a  mountain,  or  a 
city.  It  is  not  intended  that  we  must  employ  observation 
as  the  only  means  of  learning  all  the  details  about  our 
home  county  any  more  than  it  is  that  we  must  use  it  to 
learn  the  details  of  Cuba,  the  Susquehanna  River,  the 


I6O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

Rocky  Mountains,  or  London.  Indeed,  at  this  point 
observation  need  not  play  any  immediate  part  and  we 
may  still  become  very  well  informed. 

Having  met  the  mistaken  claim  that  personal  obser- 
vation is  the  means  of  learning  the  facts  of  systematic 
geography,  we  are  prepared  to  make  the  claim  that, 
since  systematic  geography  treats  of  the  present  facts 
of  this  earth,  and  since  this  earth  is  one  and  not  a 
class,  it  is,  therefore,  the  unit  of  the  subject  and  conse- 
quently the  point  of  departure  in  the  study  of  it.  The 
first  thing,  then,  to  do  in  opening  the  subject  of  sys- 
tematic geography  is  to  teach  the  child,  through  the 
help  of  a  globe,  what  the  earth  is  like,  the  disposition  of 
land  and  water  upon  the  earth,  of  countries,  states,  etc., 
in  order  to  enable  him  to  know  just  what  part  is  meant 
when  he  studies  all  the  minor  details  concerning  his 
home  county.  For  the  consideration  of  details  he 
should  begin  with  his  own  district,  but  it  should  be 
after  he  has  taken  a  running  survey  of  the  unit  in  order 
to  get  his  bearings.  This  is  making  a  rational  applica- 
tion of  the  guide  announced  by  Hamilton,  Spencer,  and 
others,  "  Proceed  from  the  vague  to  the  definite,"  be- 
cause it  gives  the  learner  a  real  and  comprehensible  end 
to  aim  at  and  make  definite ;  while  the  synthetic  pro- 
cedure, if  employed  consistently  from  the  start,  does 
not  enable  him  to  fix  an  end,  but  requires  him  to  pass 
on  blindly  into  an  ever-widening  field,  and  to  consider 
his  task  as  finished  when  at  its  consummation  the 
teacher  announces  the  end. 

Another  argument  for  beginning  with  the  unit  and 
proceeding  analytically  to  its  parts  in  geography  (as  we 


THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.      l6l 

should  in  all  else  where  individuals  are  under  consider- 
ation) is  based  upon  the  fact  of  location.  Every 
attempt  to  give  geographical  location  to  places  is  made 
in  terms  of  the  next  larger  division  ;  that  is,  a  township 
'  or  town  is  located  in  a  county ;  a  county,  in  a  state  ; 
a  state,  in  a  country,  etc.  All  this  assumes  an  ele- 
mentary knowledge  of  the  larger  divisions  first.  To 
endeavor  to  get  on  without  attention  to  the  element 
of  location  would  be  to  omit  attention  to  one  of  the 
fundamental  elements  of  systematic  geography. 

It  seems  useless  to  argue  upon  this  point,  as  some  do, 
that  whatever  we  select  —  a  river  basin,  a  land  slope, 
etc.  —  may  be  made  the  unit  of  geography.  Such  a 
matter  is  not  determined  by  caprice  nor  by  any  act  of 
arbitrary  choice.  Unquestionably  one  might  begin  his 
instruction  in  geography  at  any  point  he  chose,  and 
he  might  call  that  the  unit  of  his  study ;  but  such 
arbitrary  choosing  would  not  render  the  act  reasonable. 
The  unit  of  any  subject  must  be  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  subject  itself,  and  not  by  our  wish  in  the 
matter.  Botany  is  a  science  of  plants,  and  hence  a 
plant,  not  a  leaf  nor  a  forest,  is  the  unit  of  the  subject 
of  botany.  So  geography  is  the  description  of  the 
earth  ;  hence  the  earth,  and  neither  a  state  nor  the 
universe,  is  the  unit  of  the  subject. 

History  presents  many  difficulties  to  the  student  of 
pedagogy  ;  first,  because  of  the  widely  different  natures 
of  what  we  may  call  the  facts  of  history  and  the  phi- 
losophy of  history  ;  and  second,  because  of  the  fact  that 
the  subject  of  it  —  man  as  he  appears  in  the  organized 
unit  called  society,  and  not  man  in  isolation  —  seems  to 


1 62  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

be  a  great  and  growing  thing  into  which  an  individual 
comes,  and  from  which  he  departs  without  disturbing  its 
steady  growth.  Many  subjects  present  to  us  definite 
units,  which,  though  they  may  undergo  change,  can 
still  be  viewed  in  their  entirety.  But  history  presents 
no  entirety.  Instead  of  being  a  definite  thing  which 
may  be  held  in  its  integrity  even  while  we  are  viewing 
the  changes  of  growth  or  decay,  it  is  rather  an  unmade 
thing  which  is  only  in  process  of  becoming.  But  of 
one  thing  we  are  sure ;  namely,  that  the  deeds  of  men 
in  actual  society  constitute  the  reality  of  history.  The 
language  of  a  book,  even  though  it  may  have  the  word 
history  printed  upon  it,  does  not  constitute  the  vital, 
matter  in  this  study.  Children  must  be  taught  to  look 
beyond  this  language  and  to  realize  that  it  stands  for 
just  such  human  experiences  as  they  may  see  enacted 
about  them  daily.  Attention  should,  therefore,  be 
called  to  the  doings  of  men  in  the  present,  either  as 
they  may  be  witnessed  in  fact  or  as  they  are  recorded 
in  the  daily  press,  so  that  these  may  serve  to  make 
significant  the  records  of  events  that  are  remote  both 
in  time  and  place.  It  is  very  evident  that  the  facts  of 
history  must  be  accumulated  by  the  learner  before  he  is 
prepared  for  rational  work  in  the  philosophy  of  history. 
This  accumulation  of  facts  consists  chiefly  in  impress- 
ing them  upon  the  learner's  memory.  Of  course  they 
should  be  comprehended  as  facts  before  they  are  com- 
mitted to  memory,  but,  being  merely  facts  and  plainly 
stated,  their  comprehension  should  be  a  simple  matter. 
The  drill  requisite  for  impressing  them  indelibly  upon 
the  mind  is  now  the  important  thing.  Every  legitimate 


THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.      163 

attraction  that  may  be  added  to  this  process  of  drilling 
is  in  order,  but  it  must  be  understood  that  such  attrac- 
tion cannot  supersede  the  drill ;  it  merely  renders  it 
more  effectual.  When  thought  is  taxed  to  determine 
the  relation  of  historic  events  to  each  other  as  cause 
and  effect,  to  form  historic  generalizations  and  opinions 
of  men  and  measures,  we  are  engaged  upon  the  phi- 
losophy of  history.  Now  drill  to  impress  facts  is  no 
longer  the  chief  concern  ;  it  is  rather  an  appeal  to  the 
understanding,  and  a  great  field  for  comparative  study 
has  been  opened  up.  It  is  not  meant  that  these  two 
processes  should  be  kept  distinct  in  time.  They  are 
rather  aids  to  each  other.  But  it  is  meant  that  facts 
must  be  at  hand  before  one  may  safely  speculate  upon 
them.  It  is  further  meant  that  in  securing  the  fact, 
prime  reliance  must  be  placed  upon  the  drill ;  while  in 
discussing  cause  and  effect,  men  and  measures,  the  chief 
appeal  must  be  made  to  the  judgment.  The  two  pro- 
cesses should  develop  together  and  act  as  supports  to 
each  other. 

It  would  be  an  easy  matter  to  determine  the  unit  of 
historical  study  if  the  subject  were  merely  a  record  of 
the  deeds  of  isolated  men.  Each  act  worthy  of  record 
would  then  constitute  a  unit  of  history.  But  in  society, 
which  is  the  power  that  makes  history,  each  man  is  so 
inseparably  bound  up  with  other  men,  and  each  act  is  so 
affected  by  the  supporting  and  disturbing  acts  of  others, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  regard  any  one  individual  as  the 
sole  cause  of  a  great  event.  It  is  equally  impossible  to 
regard  any  one  act  as  the  cause  either  of  the  failure  or 
the  accomplishment  of  any  undertaking.  Furthermore, 


164  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

it  is  not  possible  to  point  to  any  one  act  as  the  closing 
act  of  a  great  social  drama,  excepting  as  we  may  arbi- 
trarily choose  to  call  it  closed  and  to  turn  our  thought 
to  other  events  invested  with  superior  interest,  because 
each  section  of  human  experience  thus  spoken  of  as  a 
drama  enacted  leaves  its  effects  in  future  events  both 
near  and  remote,  until  it  becomes  impossible  to  speak  of 
any  event  as  having  ceased  to  extend  itself  through  its 
consequences.  Accordingly  we  select  an  epoch  in 
human  experiences  as  the  unit  of  historic  study.  By 
an  historic  epoch  is  meant  a  period  in  the  progress  of 
events  whose  occurrences  bear  so  intimate  a  relation  to 
one  another  that  we  are  justified  in  regarding  them  as 
merely  the  several  parts  of  one  prolonged  enterprise  ; 
as  the  period  of  colonization,  or  the  Civil  War,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  epochs  in  American  history. 

Concerning  the  actual  reality  and  the  unit  of  study 
in  physiology,  as  in  all  nature  study,  little  needs  to  be 
said,  because  their  structure  is  so  evident  that  it  leaves 
but  scant  room  for  any  differences  of  opinion  or  any 
liability  to  error  on  the  part  of  those  who  think. 
Human  physiology  has  as  its  reality  the  human  body ; 
botany  has  plants ;  mineralogy  has  mineral  substances ; 
ornithology  has  birds,  etc.  Any  attempt  to  substitute 
book  definitions  or  verbal  descriptions  for  these  realities 
is  a  violation  of  the  reality  principle  in  education,  and 
must  lead  to  superficial  attainment,  if  it  escapes  positive 
error.  Of  course,  it  is  to  be  understood  that  personal 
observation  will  be  supplemented  and  greatly  aided  by  a 
careful  study  of  the  literature  of  the  science,  but  the 
purpose  here  is  to  warn  against  the  too  common  practice 


THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.      165 

of  seeming  to  study  certain  branches  of  the  natural 
sciences  by  merely  reading  books  about  the  things  in 
question.  We  are  not  doing  rational  study  of  physi- 
ology if  our  efforts  in  that  direction  are  exhausted  when 
we  commit  questions  and  answers  from  even  a  physi- 
ology text-book. 

As  the  human  body  is  the  actual  reality  in  physi- 
ology, so  is  a  human  body,  and  not  a  trunk  or  head  or 
limb,  the  unit  of  study.  When  we  remember  that  a 
whole,  like  the  human  body,  a  plant,  or  a  bird,  is  simply 
the  several  parts  in  their  proper  relations  to  each  other, 
we  are  in  a  position  to  realize  the  wisdom  of  opening 
our  study  with  a  view  of  the  unit  in  its  entirety.  The 
relations  of  these  several  parts  to  each  other  cannot  be 
understood  except  as  the  parts  are  presented  to  the 
learner  in  their  relations;  their  functions  cannot  be 
appreciated  unless  their  several  relations  are  known. 
And  when  these  two  things  are  eliminated  from  the 
study  of  nature  all  the  vital  elements  are  gone  —  there 
is  little  else  to  do  but  give  the  names  of  things  and 
recite  high-sounding  but  meaningless  phrases  about 
them. 

Drawing  as  presented  in  the  public  schools  may  have 
several  different  purposes  to  fulfill ;  but  whatever  these 
are,  it  seems  certain  that  they  are  to  be  accomplished 
largely  through  bodily  movements  which  are  employed 
in  the  actual  production  of  forms.  In  this  effort  the 
learner  must  be  trained  to  observe,  but  it  is  only  in 
order  that  he  may  then  make ;  he  must  be  taught  to 
appreciate  and  enjoy,  but  this  is  only  the  outcome  of 
his  wisely  directed  effort  to  make.  This  labor  of  his 


1 66  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

may  produce  good  products  but  be  awkwardly  performed. 
Hence  we  see  that  there  are  two  distinct  things  which 
constitute  the  reality  with  which  the  teacher  of  draw- 
ing has  to  do,  —  the  actual  productions  of  the  child  and 
the  bodily  movements  required  to  produce  them.  Errors 
may  arise  either  by  getting  a  faulty  product  or  by  get- 
ting it  in  a  faulty  manner.  No  discussion  of  the  way 
in  which  things  should  be  done,  no  study  of  the  names 
and  peculiarities  of  geometric  forms,  can  take  the  place 
here  of  the  actual  deeds  of  the  learner.  The  problem 
before  the  teacher  of  drawing  is  the  development  of  the 
learner's  skill  in  manual  art.  It  is  true  that  we  do  not 
aim  in  the  public  schools  to  make  artists ;  but  it  is  also 
true  that  in  the  drawing  class  we  do  aim  at  making 
children  able  to  draw.  If  appreciation  of  the  beauties 
of  nature  and  the  culture  of  the  artistic  sense  were  the 
only  things  desired,  they  could  both  be  secured  by  other 
and  better  means  than  those  used  in  the  drawing  class. 
In  the  drawing  class  it  is  the  ability  to  execute  intelli- 
gently that  is  our  chief  aim  ;  all  other  things  are  inci- 
dental to  this,  though  they  may  be  important  in  them- 
selves. Concerning  the  employment  of  the  objects  to 
be  drawn,  two  opposing  theories  have  been  held.  One 
is  that  the  exact  geometric  forms  should  be  regarded  as 
the  unit  of  study ;  the  other  is  that  natural  objects 
which  embody  these  type  forms  should  be  taken  as  the 
unit  of  study.  Several  arguments  can  be  advanced  for 
accepting  the  second  position.  Geometric  type  forms 
are  purely  artificial.  They  are  the  products  of  a  long 
and  laborious  period  of  development  in  human  thought. 
They  contain  but  little  significance  to  the  learner,  ex- 


THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.      l6/ 

cepting  the  student  of  geometry,  and  possess  no  power 
to  attract.  On  the  other  hand,  objects  in  nature  are 
things  with  which  he  comes  into  daily  contact,  and  upon 
which  his  interest  is  already  centered.  To  draw  these 
will  give  to  the  art  immediate  attractiveness.  Hence, 
we  conclude  that  because  of  their  greater  motive  worth 
the  objects  in  nature,  rather  than  the  geometric  type 
forms,  should  be  taken  as  the  unit  of  study  in  drawing. 
This  means  that  drawing  should  not  be  begun  by  en- 
deavoring to  make  straight  lines,  curved  lines,  triangles, 
squares,  etc.,  as  a  preparation  for  drawing  objects ;  but 
that  at  the  outset  the  learner  should  be  urged  to  repre- 
sent an  object,  and  as  the  outgrowth  of  such  intelligent 
and  attractive  effort  he  will  acquire  the  skill  to  make 
straight  and  curved  lines  as  well  as  all  combinations  of 
both.  This  method  of  procedure  robs  the  drawing 
class  of  its  mechanical  drudgery,  and  lends  interest  to 
an  intelligible  activity  from  the  outset,  without  lessening 
any  of  the  good  results  in  the  line  of  increased  manual 
dexterity. 

In  the  writing  class,  as  in  the  drawing  class,  we  aim, 
primarily,  to  secure  skill  in  an  art,  and  not  to  compre- 
hend and  commit  definitions  and  rules.  The  actual 
realities,  therefore,  are  the  letter  forms  and  the  bodily 
movements  required  to  make  them.  The  learner's 
attention  needs  to  be  called  to  the  correct  forms  of  the 
various  letters,  and  he  needs  to  have  his  own  incorrect 
copies  of  them  carefully  criticised.  His  bodily  position, 
manner  of  holding  the  pen  or  pencil,  movements  of 
arm,  etc.,  constitute  the  other  elements  needing  a 
teacher's  care. 


1 68  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

The  unit  of  study  in  writing  is  plainly  the  letter. 
But  it  is  expedient  that  the  letters  should  be  presented 
in  words,  because  connected  with  the  words  there  is 
meaning,  and  thus  from  the  outset  the  purpose  in  learn- 
ing to  make  letters  is  revealed.  Nothing  can  take  the 
place  of  continued  drill  in  learning  to  write,  but  if  the 
purpose  of  writing  is  thus  disclosed  it  will  relieve  the 
process  of  much  of  its  drudgery.  A  distinct  aim  thus 
presented  to  a  learner  awakens  interest  in  his  tasks  and 
affords  the  best  opportunity  for  intelligent  effort. 

Having  examined  in  detail  the  actual  reality  and  the 
unit  of  study  of  a  sufficiently  large  number  of  common 
school  branches  to  enable  the  teacher  to  understand  the 
principle  involved,  we  now  turn  our  attention  to  some 
of  the  problems  involved  in  the  discussion. 

The  charge  is  often  made  that  the  Humanists  vio- 
lated this  principle,  because  they  gave  attention  so  exclu- 
sively to  language,  grammar,  rhetoric,  etc.  Regarding 
the  study  of  classical  antiquity  as  the  basis  of  all  culture, 
it  is  true  that  they  neglected  the  natural  sciences  and 
therefore  did  not  study  "  things  "  in  the  popular  sense 
of  that  term.  But  the  fact  that  they  fostered  the  study 
of  language  in  all  its  phases,  rather  than  the  study  of 
material  sciences,  is  no  proof  that  they  ignored  the 
actual  reality  in  education.  If  they  studied  languages 
through  definitions  and  rules  rather  than  through  the  lan- 
guages themselves,  then  they  violated  the  above  guide ; 
but  if  they  took  language  itself  as  a  means  of  learning 
language,  and  made  definitions  and  laws  of  the  language 
an  outcome  rather  than  a  point  of  departure,  they  did 
not  violate  any  of  the  above  truth,  even  though  they 


THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.       169 

disregarded  the  study  of  material  things.  Their  cur- 
riculum was  obviously  one-sided  and  incomplete,  but  it 
may  have  been  correct  as  far  as  it  went. 

Much  of  worth  was  added  to  the  learning  of  the 
world  when  the  Realists  appeared,  and,  without  dropping 
the  attention  given  by  the  Humanists  to  words,  added 
the  study  of  material  things  also.  These  men  ushered 
in  the  era  of  modern  scientific  research,  but  even  with 
this,  teachers  frequently  ignore  the  actual  reality  of  the 
branch  in  question,  and  overwhelm  the  learner  with  a 
mass  of  words  and  definitions  which  render  the  work 
hopeless  when  given  at  the  beginning,  but  round  it  out 
into  beautiful  symmetry  when  given  in  their  proper 
places. 

But  one  other  advance  in  the  history  of  education 
should  be  noted  in  order  to  understand  the  growth  of 
this  movement.  The  Humanists  and  the  Realists  dif- 
fered essentially  in  the  subject  matter  of  their  teaching, 
rather  than  in  the  manner  of  teaching  it.  The  third 
school  of  educational  thinkers  —  the  Naturalists  —  dif- 
fered from  the  other  two  in  their  emphasis  of  the  im- 
portance of  proper  methods  of  teaching.  They  gave 
pointed  discussion  to  the  thought  of  obedience  to  the 
requirements  of  man's  nature  in  the  teaching  act. 
Things  of  all  kinds,  material  and  immaterial,  were  to  be 
taught,  but  this  was  to  be  done  in  the  right  order  and 
manner.  Thus  far  we  have  determined  the  true  order 
and  manner  only  in  part,  but  we  at  least  know  the  way 
to  a  solution.  Complete  knowledge  on  these  points  will 
be  secured  only  when  we  understand  fully  the  nature 
of  the  mind  that  is  being  educated,  and  the  nature  of 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

the  entire  round  of  truths  by  which  this  education  is 
afforded. 

Sometimes  it  is  impracticable  for  the  teacher  to 
bring  the  actual  reality  of  a  branch  of  study  directly 
before  the  mind  of  the  learner.  In  that  case  there  are 
several  substitutes,  some  of  which  we  are  forced  to  user 
but  we  shall  not  fail  to  keep  in  mind  that  they  are  sub- 
stitutes, and  are  justifiable  only  on  the  ground  of  neces- 
sity. They  are  models,  pictures,  and  verbal  represent- 
atives. The  exact  order  in  which  these  should  be 
resorted  to  it  may  not  be  possible  to  determine,  as  this 
is  doubtless  dependent  upon  many  and  varied  circum- 
stances. The  model,  it  is  clear,  presents  all  the 
dimensions  of  the  reality  and  would  seem  to  bear  the 
closest  resemblance  to  it ;  but  if  the  reality  is  large  and 
specially  dependent  upon  its  surroundings  for  its  mean- 
ing, as  in  geography,  the  model  is  impracticable,  and  a 
good  picture  is  often  clearer  than  any  model  yet  devised. 
Again,  if  the  reality  is  a  state  of  mind  or  a  truth,  and 
not  a  material  thing,  both  model  and  picture  may  be 
misleading,  and  a  verbal  description  may  be  the  very 
best  aid  a  teacher  can  employ.  But,  if  it  is  not  possi- 
ble to  solve  the  problem  of  the  relative  worth  of  these 
substitutes,  it  is  still  an  easy  matter  to  give  some  state- 
ments concerning  them,  which  may  be  studied  with 
profit.  True  concepts  are  not  to  be  secured  from  that 
which  a  child  has  molded,  but  rather  through  the 
efforts  to  mold  from  a  pattern."  A  child  cannot  make 
in  clay  a  form  that  should  be  taken  as  an  example  of 
his  notion  of  a  cube  or  a  sphere.  His  product  will  have 
unequal  sides,  irregular  edges,  and  imperfect  angles;  a 


THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.       I/ 1 

cube  has  none  of  these.  His  effort  at  making  requires 
him  to  look  with  increasing  care  at  the  pattern  presented 
to  him,  and  this  pattern  may  be  taken  as  a  perfect  cube 
only  because  none  of  its  defects  are  great  enough  to 
enable  the  eye  to  detect  them.  This  is  true  of  the  rep- 
resentatives of  all  the  exact  concepts.  Clearly,  then, 
the  model  offered  can  be  regarded  only  as  an  aid  to  the 
child  in  securing  a  true  notion,  and  the  product  which 
he  makes  must  be  looked  upon  merely  as  an  attempt  to 
embody  that  notion.  Nor  is  this  confined  to  the  exact 
mathematical  concepts.  A  child  cannot  learn  a  type  of 
birds,  a  geographical  form,  or  a  mechanical  invention 
from  that  which  he  makes  in  clay  or  wood  ;  his  modeling 
is  valuable  chiefly  as  a  means  of  requiring  him  to  look 
and  to  think  with  greater  care  upon  that  which  he  is 
attempting  to  represent. 

Again,  we  must  not  forget  that  the  things  which  chil- 
dren call  pictures  vary  so  much  in  their  nature  that  they 
are  not  equally  serviceable  and  easy  to  use  as  teaching 
aids.  A  true  picture,  as  we  understand  it,  differs  vitally 
from  a  map.  The  former  by  its  likeness  brings  vividly 
to  mind  that  which  it  represents  ;  the  latter  is  made 
up  of  arbitrary  signs  whose  meanings  must  be  clearly 
taught.  Although  children  often  get  mistaken  notions 
of  things  when  they  are  limited  to  pictures  in  their  study, 
yet  from  the  nursery  picture  books  they  have  sometimes 
gone  out  into  the  fields  to  recognize  cows  and  other 
animals  at  their  first  appearance ;  no  child  could  ever, 
upon  the  most  careful  study  of  a  map,  recognize  the 
state  over  which  he  might  be  traveling. 

Finally,  language,  being  symbolical,  is  difficult  to  inter- 


172  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

pret,  and  this  is  especially  true  for  children  if  the  language 
is  figurative.  This  should  impress  teachers  with  the  im- 
portance of  clearness  and  exactness  in  speech.  Children 
are  strikingly  literal  in  their  use  of  terms.  We  may 
speak  with  perfect  security  to  developed  minds  about  a 
"breathing  spell,"  but  such  expressions  are  meaningless 
to  the  child  until  his  contact  with  people  has  made  him 
familiar  with  such  forced  usage.  One  other  reason  why 
language  is  especially  difficult  as  a  medium  of  learning 
is,  that  through  it  we  frequently  express  only  the  results 
of  study,  and  these  appear  in  the  forms  of  generalizations. 
In  this  connection  we  shall  do  well  to  remember  the 
words  of  Herbert  Spencer :  "  To  give  the  net  product 
of  inquiry,  and  not  the  processes  by  which  that  product 
was  arrived  at,  is  inefficient  and  enervating." 

The  guide  announced  above,  which  is  the  burden  of 
this  chapter,  contains  a  second  part.  To  this  we  will 
now  address  ourselves. 

Scientists  have  learned  to  recognize  that  individual 
sense  perception  is  imperfect.  Because  of  this,  account 
is  taken  of  the  "  personal  equation  "  in  the  effort  to 
average  the  findings  of  different  investigators  who  are 
engaged  upon  the  same  problem.  It  is  well  for  teachers 
to  learn  this  same  truth.  Different  persons  have  differ- 
ent sense  defects,  and  only  by  comparing  the  results  of 
their  labors  can  they  aid  each  other  and  learn  to  make 
allowance  for  their  personal  defects.  But  even  when 
there  are  no  clearly  marked  defects  among  learners,  there 
will  still  be  differing  powers  of  perception,  which  are  the 
results  of  the  varying  casts  of  mind,  or  funds  of  acquired 
knowledge.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  each  person  is 


THE    ACTUAL    REALITIES    OF    SCHOOL    SUBJECTS.      1/3 

all  that  his  past  has  made  him.  If  he  has  constantly 
exercised  his  reasoning  capacity  to  the  neglect  of  his 
observation  or  his  verbal  memory,  he  has  thereby  made 
of  himself  a  type  of  mind  that  is  in  bondage  to  its 
limitations.  This  is  equally  true  if  the  emphasis  has 
been  placed  upon  any  of  the  other  faculties  of  the  mind. 
So  it  is  with  the  person  who  has  confined  his  efforts  to  a 
very  circumscribed  field  of  learning.  He  can  summon 
for  use  many  valuable  concepts  within  this  field ;  but 
compared  with  the  possible  scope  of  human  endeavor, 
he  is  very  narrow.  This  cooperative  process  makes  the 
special  finding  of  each  the  common  possession  of  all. 

Again,  this  comparison  of  products  requires  the  pupil 
to  give  expression  to  what  he  has  learned.  This  act  not 
only  fixes  better  what  has  been  learned,  but  it  gives 
greater  clearness  and  exactness  to  the  learning  ;  and,  as 
it  is  usually  done  by  means  of  language,  it  affords  an 
excellent  means  of  growth  in  that  important  side  of  the 
child's  education.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  here  that  in 
such  a  process  of  learning  the  teacher  should  reserve 
his  own  judgment  till  that  of  the  children  has  been  fairly 
and  fully  exercised.  The  recitation  is  designed  for  the 
good  of  the  child,  and  this  can  be  secured  only  in  pro- 
portion to  his  personal  effort.  What  the  child  can  ac- 
complish for  himself  within  a  reasonable  time  under 
existing  conditions  should  not  be  done  for  him.  If  it 
is,  he  is  robbed  of  one  of  the  greatest  benefits  that 
might  come  to  him  from  a  wisely  managed  school,  and 
deprived  of  one  of  the  greatest  sources  of  pleasure. 


PART  III. 
APPLIED  METHODOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
READING. 

IN  teaching  reading  two  distinct  things  claim  our 
attention.  First,  we  must  develop  the  child's  capacity  to 
interpret  the  forms  upon  the  written  or  printed  page ; 
second,  we  must  increase  his  power  of  expressive 
utterance. 

The  first  of  these,  taken  in  its  completeness,  consti- 
tutes what  is  familiarly  called  silent  reading,  or  thought- 
getting.  In  it  there  is  much  to  be  done  that  cannot  be 
addressed  to  the  child's  power  of  comprehension,  but  must 
be  arbitrarily  impressed  upon  his  memory.  He  possesses 
the  ideas  and  is  able  to  give  oral  expression  to  them  ; 
we  get  from  him  this  expression,  and  then  in  return  give 
to  him  a  written  expression  for  the  same  thoughts. 
Since  this  is  neither  thought-getting  nor  thought-giving, 
many  writers  prefer  to  call  it  simply  word  study,  which 
is  preparatory  to  reading,  but  not  reading.  But  such 
word  study  is  so  inseparably  connected  with  what  con- 
stitutes reading  proper,  and,  indeed,  forms  so  large  a 
part  of  what  must  be  done  in  the  primary  reading  class, 
that  we  prefer  to  include  it  in  the  general  discussion  of 

174 


READING.  1^5 

reading.  In  the  early  part  of  this  work  the  truth  ex- 
pressed by  the  sentences  used  should  be  worthy  of  the 
child's  attention,  but  it  is  not  to  be  made  the  especial 
object  of  his  study ;  he  will  generally  know  it,  and  the 
recognition  of  the  sentences  themselves  is  now  vital. 
Added  to  this  recognition  must  come  the  ability  to  inter- 
pret new  sentences  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher.  When 
these  two  things  have  been  accomplished,  we  have  done 
that  which  forms  the  distinctive  mission  of  primary 
reading.  Having  given  to  the  child  this  power  of  inde- 
pendent interpretation,  we  have  accomplished  all  that 
the  reading  class,  as  a  distinct  class,  has  to  do  for  him 
in  the  matter  of  thought-getting.  Now  all  the  branches 
studied  must  contribute  their  share  toward  the  develop- 
ment of  the  learner's  capacity  to  appreciate  and  appropri- 
ate truth.  So  long  as  he  continues  to  live  and  to  learn 
from  books,  he  will  continue  the  practice  of  thought- 
getting. 

The  second  thing  to  claim  our  attention  is  oral  reading, 
or  thought-giving.  In  this  there  is  nothing  to  be  done 
that  cannot  be  best  done  under  normal  conditions  by  im- 
pressing upon  the  child  the  thought  and  sentiment  to  be 
expressed.  If  the  instrument  of  oral  expression,  the 
body,  is  in  any  respect  defective,  such  defect  can  be  cor- 
rected by  purely  mechanical  processes.  Faulty  breath- 
ing, an  habitual  nasal  tone,  stammering,  faulty  articula- 
tion, etc.,  may  all  be  improved  by  suitable  drill  exercises. 
But  pitch,  inflection,  force,  time,  quality,  etc.,  can  all  be 
made  right  by  addressing  to  the  child's  intelligence  the 
thoughts  to  be  expressed.  They  can  be  taught  rationally 
only  by  such  an  appeal  to  his  understanding.  In  this 


1/  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

thought-giving  stage  of  our  work  in  reading,  the  child 
usually  comes  to  the  printed  page  to  get  the  thoughts 
of  others,  in  order  that  he  may  have  suitable  thoughts 
to  give.  As  the  development  of  the  power  to  inter- 
pret the  printed  page  forms  the  chief  mission  in  primary 
reading,  so  the  development  of  the  power  to  control  and 
use  the  instrument  of  oral  expression  forms  the  chief 
mission  in  advanced  reading.  From  this  it  is  clearly 
seen  that  both  thought-getting  and  thought-giving  are 
present  in  all  grades  of  reading.  In  primary  reading 
thought-getting  predominates,  and  the  feature  that  is 
peculiar  to  primary  reading  is  the  impressing  of  such 
arbitrary  forms  as  will  make  the  child  able  to  pronounce 
all  words  that  will  be  met  in  his  subsequent  reading. 
In  advanced  reading,  thought-giving  predominates,  and 
the  feature  that  is  peculiar  to  advanced  reading  is 
the  development  of  such  skill  in  the  use  of  the  vocal 
mechanism  as  will  render  the  child  an  expressive  reader 
for  all  time.  Between  these  grades  of  the  work  no  sharp 
line  of  demarcation  can  ever  be  discovered.  Most  of 
what  appears  in  the  process  of  reading  is  present 
throughout  the  course,  but  in  thought-getting  and 
thought-giving  ever  increasing  ability  is  to  be  demanded, 
as  we  advance  up  the  grades. 

Primary  Reading. 

Having  pointed  out  that  the  chief  mission  in  primary 
reading  is  to  give  the  child  a  mastery  of  the  instruments 
for  thought-getting,  it  will  be  profitable  for  us  to  review 
the  methods  that  have  been  devised  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  end. 


READING.  I// 

All  the  methods  of  teaching  primary  reading  that 
have  been  developed  are  reducible  to  three  general 
classes,  —  the  alphabetic,  the  phonic,  and  the  word  or 
the  sentence  methods.  But,  whatever  method  we  use 
in  teaching  reading,  the  same  things  must  be  taught. 
When  the  work  is  completed  children  must  know  the 
letter  forms,  the  letter  sounds,  and  the  correct  method 
of  combining  torms  and  sounds.  They  should  also  know 
the  letter  names,  and  be  able  to  give  them  in  alphabetical 
order.  This  last  is  because  of  the  very  great  need  we 
have  of  them  in  reference  work  and  in  the  construction 
of  outlines,  etc.  The  difference  in  the  above  methods 
is  a  difference  in  the  order  in  which  the  various  elements 
are  taught.  The  method  gets  its  name  from  the  element 
with  which  the  work  is  begun. 

The  Alp/tabetic  Method.  This  method  consists  in 
first  teaching  children  the  names  and  the  forms  of  all 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  When  this  has  been  done, 
or  as  soon  as  a  sufficient  number  of  letters  are  known 
to  make  it  possible,  words  are  presented  and  the  learner 
names  the  letters  in  each  word ;  from  this  act  of  oral 
spelling  he  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  pronounce  the  word. 
The  method  is  based  upon  the  assumption  that  English 
spoken  words  are  formed  by  combining  the  names  of 
the  letters  in  the  words.  This  assumption  is  absolutely 
baseless.  Spoken  words  are  made  by  combining  the  let- 
ter sounds,  and  these  sounds  usually  form  no  part  of  the 
subject  matter  to  be  definitely  learned,  according  to  the 
alphabetic  method.  If  any  evidence  is  needed  to  prove 
that  English  spoken  words  are  not  made  up  of  the  letter 
names,  it  will  suffice  to  notice  the  following  words  pro- 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

duced  by  combining  the  names  of  the  characters  in  them  : 
kt,  b4,  bg,  4t6,  nme,  leg,  xlnc,  at/,  dk,  b4t,  I  c  a  b. 
Produced  according  to  the  requirements  of  proper 
English,  by  combining  letter  sounds,  they  are  as  follows  : 
Katie,  before,  benign,  forty-six,  enemy,  elegy,  excellency, 
eighty-seven,  decay,  before  tea,  I  see  a  bee. 

The  claim  is  often  made  that  in  the  days  of  our  fore- 
fathers the  alphabetic  method  was  the  only  method 
known  for  teaching  reading ;  and  since  men  learned  to 
read  then  about  as  well  as  now,  the  method  must,  there- 
fore, be  a  fairly  good  one.  In  reply  to  this  claim  it  may 
be  asserted  that,  by  the  alphabetic  method  pure  and 
simple,  no  person  ever  yet  learned  to  read.  Whenever  it 
was  thought  that  this  method  was  being  used,  teachers 
were  in  reality  resorting  to  devices  which  could  have  no 
place  in  a  consistent  alphabetic  method.  The  teacher 
pointed  to  a  word,  say  horse  ;  and  the  child  named  the  let- 
ters, h-o-r-s-e,  but  then  of  course  hesitated  and  could  not 
name  the  word.  The  teacher  would  call  for  the  letters 
again  and  again ;  each  time  the  child  would  name  the 
letters,  and  each  time  he  would  fail  to  learn  the  word  from 
them.  At  last  the  teacher  would  say,  "  h-o-r-s-e,  horse,'" 
and  then  the  child  would  say  triumphantly,  "  h-o-r-s-e, 
horse."  With  this  the  teacher  would  commend  him  for 
his  improvement  in  reading,  and  immediately  present 
another  word  to  have  him  name  its  letters,  at  which  he 
would  hesitate  until  the  name  of  the  word  was  given  him. 
Again  the  word  would  be  named  by  the  teacher,  but  not 
until  he  had  first  named  the  letters  which  compose  it. 
As  well  might  he  have  said  "a-very-fme-big-black  horse," 
as  to  have  said  "  h-o-r-s-e,  horse."  The  truth  is,  the  word 


READING.  179 

is  simply,  horse,  nothing  more  and  nothing  less.  By  per- 
sistent continuance  in  such  work  the  child  was  led  to 
believe  that  he  was  pursuing  a  rational  means  of  learning 
how  to  pronounce  words  independently.  In  fact,  he  did 
come  to  know  something  of  the  sound  values  of  the  let- 
ters by  seeing  them  again  and  again  in  words  that  were 
pronounced  for  him  ;  but  this  result  was  not  attained  by 
virtue  of  the  teaching,  but  rather  in  defiance  of  it. 

What  was  called  the  alphabetic  method  was  simply 
the  word  method  with  a  large  amount  of  worse  than 
useless  matter  attached  to  it.  Because  the  letter  names, 
which  were  so  carefully  given,  render  no  assistance  in 
the  pronunciation  of  the  word,  they  become  a  positive 
interference  to  the  learner  because  they  distract  his  at- 
tention from  the  thing  he  is  endeavoring  to  learn,  that  is, 
the  form  of  the  word  and  its  name.  These  are  the 
things  he  wishes  to  know  whenever  they  reappear.  If 
we  should  present  a  stranger  to  a  child,  and,  after  the 
child  had  become  impressed  with  his  appearance,  give 
his  name  (Henry  Allen),  we  would  never  attempt  to  im- 
press his  appearance  and  his  name  upon  the  child's 
memory  by  giving  the  names  of  his  various  parts  (head, 
trunk,  arm,  leg,  neck,  foot,  etc.)  ;  much  less  would  we 
ever  think  of  giving  the  names  of  such  parts  as  the 
means  of  enabling  the  child  to  know  what  his  name 
must  be.  To  do  so,  however,  would  be  just  as  rational, 
and  would  be  likely  to  succeed  just  as  well,  as  to  expect 
a  child  to  pronounce  English  words  from  his  knowledge 
of  letter  names. 

The  Phonic  Method.  In  this  method  we  begin  by 
teaching  the  elementary  sounds  of  the  language  and  the 


l8O  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

letter  forms  which  represent  them.  At  the  outset  no 
attention  is  given  to  the  letter  names  ;  when  the  forms 
are  presented  they  are  indicated,  not  by  giving  their 
names,  but  by  giving  their  sounds.  In  time  the  child 
will  be  given  the  names  of  the  letters  and  be  asked  to 
commit  them  to  memory  in  alphabetical  order  ;  but  in  the 
beginning  every  effort  is  made  to  associate  the  sound 
with  the  form,  so  that  whenever  the  form  appears,  its 
sound  value  will  come  to  the  child's  mind,  and  he  will 
thus  be  enabled  to  pronounce  the  words  presented. 

Though  this  work  in  phonics  is  necessary  for  the  pro- 
duction of  independent  readers,  and  though  the  phonic 
method  is  a  great  step  in  advance  of  the  time-honored 
alphabetic  method,  there  are  several  reasons  why  the 
method  which  begins  with  the  presentation  of  elementary 
sounds  is  not  a  rational  one. 

i.  It  places  upon  the  learner  at  the  outset  a  large 
amount  of  meaningless  drudgery  for  which  he  can  see 
no  use,  and  from  which  all  rational  interest  has  been 
taken.  Whether  we  resort  to  the  devices  of  the  older 
phonetic  and  phonic  methods,  or  to  those  of  the  later 
synthetic  methods,  the  conditions  are  all  the  same.  If 
reading  is  a  process  of  thought-getting  and  thought- 
giving,  then  any  mechanical  elements  in  learning  it 
should  have  their  need  revealed  by  reference  to  the 
thought  which  we  attempt  to  represent.  Granted  that 
the  child  has  an  idea  and  gives  to  it  oral  expression ;  he 
then  sees  some  reason  for  the  character  which  we  put 
upon  the  board  and  call  a  word ;  he  also  attaches  a 
meaning  to  the  character,  and  immediately  his  study  of 
it  is  made  reasonable.  When  several  words  are  pro- 


READING.  l8l 

nounced  and  he  discovers  their  similarities,  he  realizes 
the  nature  and  worth  of  elementary  sounds.  Likewise, 
when  several  words  are  written  and  he  discovers  their 
similarities,  he  realizes  the  nature  and  worth  of  written 
letters.  With  these  matters  known  to  him,  the  study  of 
elementary  sounds  and  the  forms  which  represent  them 
is  no  longer  a  meaningless  process.  The  work  at  once 
possesses  interest,  and  the  use  to  which  it  is  all  to  be 
put  becomes  manifest.  Thus  the  child  is  treated  as  an 
intelligent  being  even  in  the  study  of  the  most  mechan- 
ical parts  of  primary  reading. 

2.  It  places  at  the  service  of  the  child,  before  he 
knows  how  to  use  it,  an  instrument  which,  under  the 
conditions,  will  defeat  the  very  purpose  for  which  read- 
ing is  taught.  Anything  that  does  not  impress  upon 
the  child  from  the  beginning  the  habit  of  thought-getting 
and  thought-giving  in  reading  is  a  dangerous  thing  to 
put  into  his  possession.  If  a  child  is  made  to  believe 
that  pronouncing  words  is  reading,  he  is  being  deceived, 
and  this  is  especially  harmful  if  it  is  the  first  impression 
gained  from  the  work  in  reading.  At  the  outset,  then, 
and  throughout  the  entire  course,  we  should  aim  to 
avoid  everything  that  will  tend  to  divorce  thought  from 
word,  or  that  will  give  to  the  child  a  mastery  of 
words  before  he  has  the  habit  of  inquiring  into  their 
meanings.  Only  by  beginning  with  meanings  (ideas) 
and  working  from  them  to  words  and  then  down  to  their 
elements  can  we  have  *ny  assurance  that  the  association 
of  word  and  meaning  will  be  held  while  we  are  studying 
the  elements  of  words.  Let  it  ever  be  remembered 
that  language  is  that  of  which  meaning  and  word  are 


1 82  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

but  two  phases,  and  that,  if  we  study  characters  devoid 
of  meaning,  we  are  not  gaining  a  mastery  of  language. 

3.  It  is  unpsychological,  and  therefore  not  in  accord 
with  the  true  order  of  procedure  in  learning.  In  its 
comprehension  of  things  the  mind  naturally  works  from 
aggregates  to  their  elements,  and  the  subject  of  reading 
offers  no  grounds  for  the  violation  of  this  order.  By  the 
phonic  methods  unrelated  sounds  are  to  be  learned,  and 
then,  from  these  discordant  elements,  the  child  is  to 
construct,  by  a  synthetic  act,  the  words  which  he  is 
studying.  Since  expression  devoid  of  meaning  does  not 
constitute  language,  and  since  it  is  language  that  we  are 
to  treat  in  reading,  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that 
the  elaborately  analyzed  elements  of  words,  with  which 
no  meaning  is  ever  attached  in  their  separateness,  do  not 
constitute  a  reasonable  point  of  departure  in  the  study 
of  reading.  The  smallest  language  element  that  has 
meaning  associated  with  it  is  a  word ;  hence  to  begin  our 
study  of  language  with  anything  less  than  a  word  is  to 
begin  it  with  dissociated  fragments,  rather  than  with  con- 
sistent units. 

Many  argue  that  because  the  first  language  of  a  little 
child  is  a  language  of  sounds  and  not  words,  therefore 
the  sound  is  the  thing  to  begin  with,  since  our  teaching 
should  follow  the  natural  order  of  development  of  the 
being  that  we  aim  to  educate.  In  reply  to  this  it  may  be 
said  :  (i)  There  is  no  evidence  that  the  earliest  sounds 
uttered  by  a  little  child  are  anything  more  than  impulsive 
utterances  and  simple  exercises  of  his  vocal  muscles, 
though  we  treat  them  as  a  clearly  developed  language. 
(2)  Even  if  it  is  true  that  sounds  are  the  first  language 


READING.  183 

elements  used  in  babyhood,  we  have  in  that  no  sufficient 
reason  for  treating  a  six-year-old  child  as  we  would  treat 
an  infant  in  arms.  We  are  aiming  to  teach  reading,  not 
to  teach  an  individual  how  to  talk.  The  child  already 
knows  how  to  do  that.  That  our  teaching  should  follow 
the  natural  order  of  human  development  is  undoubtedly 
true  ;  but  it  seems  equally  evident  that  what  this  means 
is,  that  we  should  first  bring  the  learner  into  contact 
with  the  rational  unities  of  the  subject  studied,  and  from 
these  we  should  make  our  analysis  in  order  to  compre- 
hend the  units,  and  our  generalizations,  whenever  they 
are  possible,  in  order  to  become  masters  of  the  truths 
which  the  subject  may  present. 

The  Word  or  the  Sentence  Method.  The  word  method 
of  teaching  reading  and  the  sentence  method  of  teaching 
reading  are  usually  treated  as  two  distinct  methods,  but 
we  have  united  them  into  one,  in  the  present  analysis, 
because  they  agree  in  starting  with  a  language  element 
large  enough  to  represent  meaning.  Neither  letters  nor 
sounds  have  any  meaning  attached  to  them  ;  both  words 
and  sentences  have.  Many  reasons  for  advocating  either 
the  word  method  or  the  sentence  method  are  implied  in 
the  discussion  given  above.  To  emphasize  these  thoughts 
they  might  be  definitely  stated  as  follows  :  — 

Since  reading  has  to  do  with  meaning  and  its  expres- 
sion, and  since  words  and  sentences  (not  letters  and 
sounds)  are  the  language  elements  which  have  meaning 
attached  to  them,  they  are  the  elements  of  expression 
which  form  the  realities  of  reading,  and  should,  there- 
fore, form  the  point  of  departure  in  the  teaching  of  read- 
ing. If  there  is  any  wisdom  in  bringing  the  actual 


184  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

reality  of  a  subject  to  the  mind  of  a  learner,  there  seems 
to  be  as  much  wisdom  in  bringing  it  to  him  in  its  integ- 
rity, rather  than  in  discordant  fragments. 

Many  object  to  these  methods  of  teaching  reading  on 
the  ground  that,  failing  to  give  the  child  the  phonic 
elements  of  words,  they  are  incomplete  and  render  him 
dependent  upon  a  teacher,  and  do  not  make  it  possible 
for  him  to  interpret  new  sentences,  unaided.  This  objec- 
tion arises  from  a  mistaken  conception  of  the  word  or 
the  sentence  method.  The  mistake  lies  in  substituting 
a  part  for  the  whole.  The  objector  assumes  that  we  ex- 
haust the  word  method  when  we  have  given  the  child 
words  as  wholes  ;  naturally  he  concludes  from  this  that 
we  leave  the  child  in  a  mentally  crippled  condition,  un- 
less we  proceed  to  supply  the  deficiency  by  employing 
the  phonic  method. 

Now  the  phonic  method  is  not  peculiar  in  that  it 
teaches  word  sounds,  but  in  that  it  is  a  method  of  teach- 
ing reading  which  presents  sounds  first  and  the  other 
necessary  elements  later.  By  the  word  method  we  teach 
word  sounds  also,  but  as  a  later  development,  following 
the  presentation  of  significant  words  as  wholes,  out  of 
the  analysis  of  which  the  meaning  and  use  of  phonics  is 
revealed  before  we  undertake  their  detailed  study.  Even 
at  the  expense  of  weariness,  let  me  repeat  that,  whatever 
method  of  teaching  reading  we  adopt,  we  must  teach  the 
same  set  of  things.  The  difference  in  the  methods  is  due 
to  the  different  orders  in  which  these  parts  are  presented, 
each  method  taking  its  name  from  the  name  of  the  part 
that  is  presented  first. 

Concerning  the  superiority  of  the  word  method  or  the 


READING.  185 

sentence  method,  there  is  still  some  debate.  The  advo- 
cates of  each  of  these  methods  argue  consistently,  but 
they  start  from  different  premises. 

Those  who  advocate  the  word  method  do  so  because 
they  regard  the  word  as  the  unit  of  study  in  reading. 
Their  argument  is  as  follows  :  — 

The  language  elements  which  the  child  first  uses 
to  express  his  thoughts  are  words. 

In  teaching  reading  we  should  begin  with  the  lan- 
guage elements  with  which  the  child  begins  his  expres- 
sion of  thought. 

Therefore,  in  teaching  reading  we  should  begin  with 
words. 

Those  who  advocate  the  sentence  method  do  so  be- 
cause they  regard  the  sentence  as  the  unit  of  study  in 
reading.  Their  argument  is  as  follows  :  — 

The  smallest  language  element  that  expresses  a 
complete  thought  is  a  sentence. 

In  teaching  reading  (which  is  thought-getting  and 
thought-giving)  we  should  begin  with  the  language  unit 
which  expresses  a  complete  thought. 

Therefore,  in  teaching  reading  we  should  begin  with 
the  sentence. 

Now  it  is  evident  that  these  two  parties  agree  in  the 
opinion  that  reading  should  be  taught  by  beginning  with 
the  unit  of  the  study,  and  proceeding  by  an  analytic 
process  to  its  elements.  Because  of  their  different  points 
of  view,  they  differ  in  their  opinion  of  what  constitutes 
the  unit  of  the  subject  of  reading.  The  word  advocates 
start  from  their  study  of  the  child,  and  declare  that  we 
should  look  to  the  practices  of  the  child  for  the  purpose  of 


I  86  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

determining  the  unit  of  the  language  for  children.  They 
forget,  as  do  some  advocates  of  the  phonic  method,  that, 
when  we  approach  the  child  to  teach  him  to  read,  he  has 
passed  beyond  his  babyhood,  and  that  the  language  he 
now  uses  is,  in  comparison  with  that  of  his  infancy, 
quite  highly  developed.  The  sentence  advocates  start 
from  their  study  of  the  subject  that  is  to  be  taught,  and 
declare  that  we  should  determine  the  natural  unit  of  the 
subject,  and  then  take  that  as  our  point  of  departure. 
This  seems  to  me  to  be  the  more  rational  view,  and  to 
emphasize  the  thought  that,  if  at  any  time  in  life  a  child 
is  not  mature  enough  to  appreciate  the  unit  of  any 
branch  of  learning,  he  is  not  then  old  enough  to  begin 
the  study  of  that  branch  with  profit.  Of  course  this  is 
not  the  case  with  a  six-year-old  child  and  the  unit  of 
reading.  He  can  appreciate  sentences,  for  he  has  been 
using  them  for  some  time  in  his  oral  language. 

Happily  these  two  methods  agree  in  emphasizing  one 
vital  matter  in  reading,  namely,  making  the  language 
elements  which  have  meaning  associated  with  them  the 
units  of  study,  and  therefore  the  starting  point  in  teach- 
ing. In  this  respect  they  both  stand  opposed  to  all 
synthetic  methods,  which  begin  with  fragments  and 
endeavor  to  construct  from  them  consistent  units. 
Furthermore,  the  items  in  which  these  two  methods 
differ  from  each  other  are  so  unimportant  that,  while  I 
do  not  hesitate  to  declare  that  the  greater  merit  attaches 
to  the  sentence  method,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  recommend 
to  inexperienced  teachers  the  word  method,  because  of 
its  using  an  aggregate  that  is  more  manageable,  espe- 
cially to  those  who  have  come  up  from  an  intimate  ac- 


READING.  IS/ 

quaintance  with  the  alphabetic  and  all  other  "  spelling 
methods"  of  teaching  reading.  After  a  very  few  les- 
sons by  the  word  method,  the  child  will  know  enough 
words  to  form  sentences.  These  he  will  read  ;  and  the 
new  words,  which  are  introduced  apart  from  sentences, 
will  immediately  be  put  into  sentences,  and  his  scope  of 
reading  be  thus  extended.  After  a  few  lessons  by  the 
sentence  method,  the  child  will  begin  to  detect  the 
common  elements  in  the  several  sentences,  and  will  thus 
have  his  attention  directed  to  individual  words  apart 
from  their  place  in  any  one  sentence.  As  soon  as  this 
point  is  reached  the  two  methods  are  practically  identi- 
cal, for  when  new  sentences  are  offered  they  will  usually 
be  found  to  contain  some  elements  with  which  the  child 
is  familiar.  As  he  becomes  familiar  with  more  and  more 
sentences,  the  unfamiliar  parts  of  newly  presented  sen- 
tences will  grow  less  numerous,  until  in  time  the  teacher 
can  present  many  new  sentences  in  a  lesson  and  not 
have  a  totally  new  word  appear  in  any  of  them.  The 
combinations  of  words  will  be  new,  but  the  individual 
words  will  all  be  familiar.  By  either  method  our  aim 
should  be  to  lead  the  child  to  take  in  the  sentence  as  a 
whole  before  he  begins  to  give  oral  expression  to  it ;  this 
will  insure  smoothness  of  reading  as  nothing  else  will. 

Having  presented  what  is  regarded  as  a  true  philos- 
ophy of  the  several  methods  of  teaching  primary  reading, 
we  shall  now  give  a  detailed  statement  of  the  steps  in  the 
word  method.  This  one  is  chosen,  rather  than  the  sen- 
tence method,  because,  of  all  the  methods  which  are  true 
to  our  general  philosophy  of  teaching,  this  one  presents 
the  least  number  of  obstacles  to  dampen  the  ardor  of  the 


1 88  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

untrained  teacher ;  while  the  teacher  of  experience  and 
philosophic  insight  will  be  able  to  embrace  all  the  chances 
of  gaining  an  advantage  in  the  use  of  sentences  rather 
than  isolated  words. 


Word  Method. 

/.  Word-learning  Period,  (i)  Time,  about  four  to 
six  weeks.  This  is  given  merely  as  a  guide,  and  is  not  in- 
tended as  a  statement  of  a  fixed  period.  This  arbitrary 
learning  of  words  as  wholes  may  be  continued  with  profit 
as  long  as  the  child's  interest  in  the  work  lasts.  The 
greater  the  number  of  words  he  can  recognize  instantly 
as  wholes,  the  more  naturally  and  fluently  will  he  read. 
Even  after  word  analysis  is  begun,  we  should  keep  up  this 
learning  of  words  as  wholes  just  as  long  as  he  needs  help 
in  naming  new  words.  When  some  of  the  phonic  ele- 
ments have  been  learned,  the  new  words  which  contain 
only  the  elements  he  knows  should  be  worked  out  by  the 
child,  and  not  arbitrarily  told  to  him.  This  will  give  him 
constant  practice  in  applying  his  newly  acquired  knowl- 
edge of  phonics,  and  only  through  such  constant  appli- 
cation can  he  gain  a  mastery  of  the  system  which  will 
render  him  independent  of  a  teacher.  But  all  words  he 
may  need,  which  fall  outside  the  scope  of  the  phonics  he 
has  yet  learned,  must  be  presented  to  him  arbitrarily  as 
wholes. 

(2)  Teach  several  hundred  words.  This  also  is  given 
merely  as  a  guide.  Some  children  can  take  one  hun- 
dred words  in  the  time  others  require  to  learn  fifty.  Let 
the  words  be  given  as  fast  as  the  average  of  the  class 


READING.  189 

can  take  them  and  remember  them  with  certainty.  Be 
sure  that  the  children  hold  the  words  as  they  are  taught ; 
if  this  is  not  done,  they  will  grow  more  and  more  con- 
fused as  additional  words  are  presented,  until  they 
become  completely  bewildered.  In  all  teaching,  and 
especially  in  the  early  stages  of  subjects,  it  is  a  saving  of 
time  if  we  use  time  in  becoming  absolutely  sure  that 
pupils  are  getting  what  we  present. 

The  words  chosen  for  this  stage  of  the  work  should 
be  such  as  the  child  uses  in  his  talk.  A  very  good  plan 
is  to  look  through  the  early  pages  of  the  first  reader  used 
in  the  school  and  pick  out  from  there  the  words  to  be 
taught.  Make  occasion,  in  your  oral  work,  to  get  the 
child  to  use  these  words  as  you  desire  to  teach  them. 
This  will  give  you  the  assurance  that  he  knows  the  mean- 
ing of  each  word  used.  When  he  has  spoken  the  word, 
you  can  then  present  the  same  to  him  in  form  upon  the 
blackboard.  Of  course  it  will  be  necessary  for  you  to 
tell  him  that  you  are  giving  him  the  same  word  he  has 
just  used.  The  child  must  not  be  put  to  guessing ;  he 
should  be  given  the  form,  with  the  assurance  that  it  is 
what  he  has  just  said,  and  then  be  required  to  remember 
it.  At  this  time  no  reference  should  be  made  to  the 
letters  which  compose  the  word.  We  want  him  to 
recognize  the  word  in  its  entirety.  If  he  confuses  words 
that  are  similar  in  appearance,  their  differences  should 
be  pointed  out  as  a  means  of  distinguishing  them.  For 
example,  if  he  confuses  "creek"  and  "  creep,  "  simply 
direct  his  attention  to  the  endings  and  thus  impress  the 
points  of  difference,  but  do  not  refer  to  them  as  k  and  /. 
That  you  may  impress  it  upon  his  memory,  the  word 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 


should  be  written  in  many  different  places  upon  the 
board,  be  erased  and  reproduced  for  recognition,  be  put 
in  connection  with  various  other  words  previously  learned, 
etc.  Use  many  devices  for  assuring  yourself  that  the 
word  is  not  known  simply  in  some  one  position.  These 
devices  will  be  the  best  means  of  fixing  the  forms  firmly 
in  the  child's  mind. 

Several  varieties  of  seat  work  may  be  given  at  this 
stage  of  the  child's  advancement.  Remembering  that 
all  the  work  done  by  the  teacher  upon  the  board  is  done 
in  script  and  not  in  print,  we  may  have  the  child  copy 
the  words  taught  to  him.  Give  him  a  number  of  small 
cards  containing  the  words  taught  (and  others  to  be 
taught),  and  have  him  pick  out  and  arrange  in  lots  all  the 
words  he  knows  ;  these  words  may  then  be  written.  If 
you  have  books  printed  in  the  script  type,  let  him  pick 
out,  from  pages  assigned,  all  the  words  known,  and  then 
write  them.  From  the  time  he  has  learned  enough 
appropriate  words,  have  him  construct  and  then  write 
many  sentences. 

Do  not  forget  that  in  this  work  persistent  review,  with 
all  the  variety  and  interest  you  can  introduce  into  it,  is 
the  secret  of  success.  The  words  of  previous  days 
should  keep  coming  up  in  new  connections,  whenever 
they  can  be  used.  Introduce  all  kinds  of  appropriate 
games  for  the  sake  of  drilling  the  children  upon  old 
words,  and  at  the  same  time  robbing  the  drill  exercise 
of  its  mechanical  drudgery.  This  does  not  mean  that 
school  work  must  all  be  made  play,  for  school  work  that 
is  significant  to  the  child  should  have  sufficient  interest 
attached  to  the  significance  ;  but  it  does  mean  that  we 


READING. 

must  do  something  to  keep  the  requisite  drill  work  of 
children  from  becoming  a  lifeless  routine. 

2.  Power-giving  Period.  During  this  period  the 
work  in  word  analysis  is  done.  This  is  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  to  the  child  the  key  to  pronunciation  of  all 
words,  and  thus  rendering  him  independent  of  a  teacher 
or  any  other  helper,  excepting  a  dictionary.  It  is  nec- 
essary that  the  child  should  know  three  things  to  enable 
him  to  pronounce  new  words  independently.  They  are, 
letter  forms,  elementary  sounds,  and  the  association  of 
form  and  sound.  For  the  purpose  of  making  it  easier 
to  refer  to  the  letters,  which  are  now  to  be  carefully 
studied,  and  also  for  its  use  in  other  connections,  we 
should  during  this  stage  teach  the  letter  names.  These 
names  should  not  be  given,  however,  until  the  child  is 
first  impressed  very  forcibly  with  the  sound  values  of 
letters. 

(i)  Elementary  sounds.  These  are  best  learned  by  a 
form  of  slow  pronunciation.  For  this  purpose  select 
suitable  words  from  those  already  learned  as  wholes. 
Until  this  work  has  been  done,  children  will  think  that  a 
word  has  as  many  sounds  in  it  as  it  has  syllables.  Let 
this  work  be  done  at  first  exclusively  by  the  teacher,  so 
that  by  thoughtful  listening  the  child's  hearing  may  be 
trained  to  discriminate  accurately  between  the  different 
sounds.  When  this  ear  training  has  been  accomplished 
to  a  sufficient  extent  to  enable  him  to  hear  the  im- 
portant sounds  when  made  accurately,  he  should  then  be 
trained  by  imitation  to  make  the  sounds  himself.  Re- 
member that  this  exercise  in  slow  pronunciation  is  to 
impress  upon  the  child  that  words  are  made  up  of  dis- 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

tinct  sounds.  When  this  truth  is  realized  he  then  sees 
the  significance  of  elementary  sounds  and  is  prepared  to 
make  them  a  distinct  matter  of  intelligent  study. 

(2)  Letter  forms  and  names.  These  are  best  learned 
by  making  them.  At  this  point  the  superiority  of  the 
blackboard  over  any  chart  or  other  ready-made  set  of 
letters  is  manifest.  The  teacher  should  be  a  good,  plain 
writer.  When  a  letter  is  to  be  studied,  it  should  be 
made,  before  the  class,  upon  the  board.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  to  impress  upon  children  the  point  of 
beginning  and  the  course  to  be  followed  in  making  the 
letter.  Then  children  should  be  allowed  to  trace  the 
letter  made  ;  after  this  should  come  the  effort  to  make 
the  letter  at  another  place,  but  with  the  teacher's  model 
before  them ;  finally  they  should  be  required  to  make 
the  letter  with  no  copy  present.  Keep  in  mind  that  this 
is  not  primarily  an  exercise  in  penmanship,  but  a  lesson 
to  impress  a  letter  form.  The  best  processes  in  pen- 
manship should  not  be  violated  in  this  exercise,  however, 
and,  on  that  account,  we  should  have  children  make  the 
letters  at  first  in  a  large,  bold  hand,  preferably  upon  the 
blackboard. 

The  letters  should  not  be  learned  at  this  time  in  the 
order  of  the  alphabet,  but  in  groups  that  will  bring  into 
prominence  the  unlike  points  in  similar  letters,  as  m,  n> 
u,  v,  w ;  i,  e ;  a,  d,  o  ;  by  h,  k ;  d,  t,  etc.  When  the 
letters  are  learned  and  can  be  recognized  with  absolute 
certainty,  they  should  be  arranged  in  alphabetical  order 
and  be  committed  in  that  order.  In  practice  it  will  be 
found  that  learning  the  letter  forms  and  their  order  in 
the  alphabet  is.  a  very  small  task  for  most  children,  The 


READING.  193 

repetition  of  the  forms  in  words  learned,  and  the  con- 
stant pronunciation  of  words,  especially  where  sound 
and  name  of  letter  are  much  alike,  will  impress  these 
letter  forms  and  names  upon  a  great  proportion  of  the 
class.  Let  us  never  forget  that  children  do  much  think- 
ing which  is  not  definitely  directed  by  us  in  the  class, 
and  we  should  therefore  work  upon  the  constant  assump- 
tion that  they  possess  brains. 

(3)  Association  of  letter  and  sound.  This  is  best 
learned  by  a  process  of  spelling.  The  slow  pronuncia- 
tion, used  to  reveal  the  sounds  in  words,  being  done  as 
it  is  with  the  words  written  before  the  class,  will  enable 
the  children  to  associate  many  sounds  with  their  appro- 
priate letters.  It  is  true  that,  for  a  time,  the  learners 
may  not  know  them  as  letters,  but  rather  as  parts  of 
the  words ;  but,  if  this  is  true,  it  is  all  the  better  for  the 
learners.  Letters  will  be  seen  to  have  value  only  as  the 
elements  of  words ;  and,  if  that  is  revealed  when  we  are 
not  aiming  at  it,  we  shall  have  but  one  more  instance  of 
undesigned  teaching,  which  meets  us  at  every  turn. 
But  when  the  sounds  have  been  distinctly  presented  and 
the  letter  forms  are  learned,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
undesigned  result  is  not  complete.  To  these  unknown 
elements  we  shall  have  to  give  some  special  study. 

One  thing  should  be  most  carefully  guarded  against, 
namely,  pronouncing  the  word  immediately  after  saying 
in  order  the  letter  names  which  are  found  in  it.  This 
will  constantly  force  upon  the  learner  the  idea  that  the 
letter  names,  when  properly  uttered,  constitute  the 
spoken  word,  —  a  view  which  we  have  found  to  be  en- 
tirely without  foundation.  When  we  say  c-o-l-t  (letter 


194  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

names),  colt,  we  give  to  the  child  the  idea  that  what  we 
utter  makes  the  word.  If  we  say  c-o-l-t  (letter  sounds), 
colt,  we  impress  the  truth  that  what  we  utter  forms  the 
spoken  word.  This  then  forms  the  key  to  the  method 
of  spelling  which  should  be  used  when  we  endeavor  to 
establish  the  association  of  letters  and  sounds.  The 
words  used  may  be  pronounced  ;  the  letter  names  in 
them  may  then  be  given,  though  they  are  not  of  any 
value  in  this  exercise ;  then  the  letter  sounds  should  be 
given,  and  immediately  afterward  the  word  should  be 
pronounced.  This  will  enable  the  child  to  associate  cor- 
rectly the  phonic  elements  of  the  spoken  word  and  the 
letter  forms  of  the  written  word. 

With  these  three  elements  known  and  the  habit  es- 
tablished of  looking  at  words  (not  letters  or  sounds)  as 
the  units  in  reading,  and  of  viewing  these  words  as  the 
signs  of  distinct  meanings,  the  child  has  in  his  possession 
the  key  to  all  reading.  Now,  having  been  set  right  in 
this  most  important  of  the  school  arts,  the  child  needs  but 
to  apply  his  information  and  to  continue  the  exercise  of 
his  habit  or  regarding  word  meanings,  and  he  will  become 
an  expressive  reader.  He  needs  more  enlightenment 
than  this  and  greater  skill  than  he  yet  possesses  to  make 
him  an  artistic  reader,  but  these  things  will  be  furnished 
in  the  advanced  reading  exercises  and  in  all  other  exercises 
which  add  to  his  store  of  knowledge  and  wisdom. 

General  Suggestions.  In  all  blackboard  work  in  pri- 
mary reading  use  script  letters,  because  you  can  make 
them  better  and  because  the  child  never  needs  to  learn 
to  print.  If  he  does  learn  to  print,  it  will  only  injure 
his  penmanship,  and  he  will,  moreover,  be  forced  to  drop 


READING.  195 

it  as  soon  as  he  is  through  with  it  in  primary  reading. 
If  script  is  used,  the  letters  are  connected,  and  hence 
the  words  appear  as  units.  This  being  so,  there  will  be 
less  tendency  on  the  child's  part  to  "  spell "  words,  even 
if  he  has  learned  the  letters  at  home. 

In  making  the  transition  from  the  script  to  the  printed 
book,  do  not  magnify  the  difficulties.  The  child  will  find 
nothing  to  appall  him  if  the  teacher  does  not  previously 
announce  that  now  he  is  about  to  undertake  a  task  that 
will  tax  his  powers  to  their  utmost.  Remember  that 
children  naturally  notice  resemblances  rather  than  dif- 
ferences among  things.  The  difference  between  script 
and  print  is  no  greater  than  the  difference  between  differ- 
ent styles  of  script,  and  yet  we  expect  children  to  read 
the  writing  of  one  person  if  they  are  able  to  read  that 
of  another.  Simply  present  in  script  a  sentence  that 
you  can  duplicate  in  print ;  have  the  script  read,  being  sure 
that  every  person  knows  it ;  now  with  the  printed  duplicate 
before  them,  ask  for  volunteers  to  read  it.  In  every  ordi- 
inary  class  there  will  be  persons  who  will  see  the  similarity 
and  will  read  the  sentence  in  print.  Now,  without  fur- 
ther comment,  excepting  perhaps  to  encourage  them  in 
the  work,  assume  that  they  can  read  print  and  refer  to  it 
or  to  the  script  indifferently.  If  the  teacher  makes  no 
more  of  the  imaginary  difficulty  than  this,  the  children 
will  make  the  transition  and  almost  never  discover  a 
difficulty. 

When  sentences  containing  a  common  idiom  are  used, 
children  will  soon  grow  familiar  with  the  idiom ;  and,  un- 
less we  proceed  with  caution,  they  will  repeat  the  idiom 
mechanically,  as  a  child  in  the  nursery  will  repeat  the 


196  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

story  of  his  picture  book  when  he  sees  the  picture. 
Fond  parents  often  think  such  a  child  can  read,  when  in 
reality  he  has  merely  learned  to  "  speak  a  certain  piece  " 
in  connection  with  each  picture.  These  idioms  should 
frequently  be  changed  in  order  to  avoid  this  mechanical 
result. 

Remember  that  a  child  can  spell  without  knowing  the 
letters,  or  even  that  there  are  such  things  as  letters. 
When  a  child  can  make  as  a  whole  a  word  you  may  call 
for,  he  can  spell  that  word.  He  may  not  be  able  to  say 
the  names  of  the  letters  which  form  the  word,  but  this  is 
not  essential  to  spelling.  Spelling  is  simply  putting  to- 
gether letters  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  words.  This 
the  child  does  when  he  writes  whole  words,  and,  in  the 
act,  he  employs  the  only  form  of  spelling  that  is  of  any 
great  value  —  written  spelling. 

Though  the  blackboard  is  preferable  to  a  chart  or  a 
book  for  most  of  the  early  work  in  primary  reading, 
there  is  a  certain  amount  of  material  that  one  can  with 
profit  keep  in  permanent  form  and  have  ready  for  use  at 
any  moment.  To  supply  this  a  chart  is  a  valuable  ad- 
junct. These  cost  more  money  than  some  districts  can 
or  will  spend  for  such  material,  but  fortunately  this  need 
not  act  as  a  barrier  in  the  way  of  any  earnest  teacher. 
A  few  cents  and  some  mechanical  ingenuity  will  en- 
able him  to  surmount  this  obstacle.  Buy  some  sheets  of 
manila  wrapping  paper,  cut  the  size  you  may  desire 
for  your  chart ;  paste  upon  these  sheets  such  pictures, 
cut  from  cast-off  magazines  or  other  periodicals,  as  you 
have  found  by  experience  to  be  interesting  and  valuable 
to  children  in  their  language  work ;  below  the  picture 


READING. 

on  a  given  sheet,  write  the  sentences  you  wish  to  teach 
from  that  picture  ;  around  the  entire  margin  write  words, 
—  those  found  in  the  sentences  you  teach  and  others,  — 
making  a  complete  border  of  plainly  written  words. 
Repeat  this  general  plan  on  the  other  sheets,  being 
careful  to  put  repeated  words  in  different  positions  on 
the  margins  of  the  several  sheets.  Thus  constructed, 
you  have  the  best  chart  for  you  that  could  be  made, 
because  you  have  embodied  in  it  the  things  which  your 
own  thought  has  dictated  as  the  items  to  be  brought 
out  of  each  picture.  This  will  rob  the  process  of  its 
forced  mechanical  character  on  your  part. 

The  best  use  to  which  such  a  chart  can  be  put  is  as  a 
means  of  review.  The  sentences  found  upon  it  can  best 
be  developed  in  the  oral  language  class,  to  be  reproduced 
for  reading,  first  upon  the  blackboard.  Then  the  chart 
can  serve  its  best  purpose  in  supplying  material  for 
review.  In  the  early  learning  of  words  it  helps  a  child 
greatly  if  he  can  see  how  they  are  made.  Increased 
permanence  is  given  to  the  impression  if  we  add  the 
activity  of  his  motor  side  in  having  him  make  these 
same  words. 

Gradually  lead  children  to  read  whole  stories,  rather 
than  merely  disconnected  sentences.  A  love  for  proper 
reading  should  follow  close  upon  the  ability  to  read. 
This  love  can  be  developed  only  by  bringing  the  child 
into  touch  with  consistent  and  valuable  reading  matter ; 
incompleteness  always  has  a  tendency  to  divert  the  atten- 
tion, and  in  time  to  render  the  work  aimless.  The  best 
modern  reading  books  for  the  grades  are  carrying  out 
this  idea,  and  are  framing  their  sentences,  not  only  with 


198  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

a  view  to  introducing  words  in  a  certain  order,  but  also 
with  reference  to  the  consistency  of  the  ideas  expressed. 
In  them,  therefore,  the  sentences  will  stand  somewhat 
apart,  for  the  purpose  of  making  their  observation  easier ; 
but  the  succession  of  sentences  marks  the  continuation 
of  a  consistent  body  of  thought. 

As  soon  as  the  children  are  capable  of  doing  it,  have 
them  read  easy  exercises  from  the  daily  papers  and 
other  publications.  Show  to  the  child,  as  soon  as 
possible,  that  he  is  learning  to  do  just  what  older  per- 
sons do.  This  will  make  his  interest  greater  and 
more  real.  It  will  unite  the  school  with  the  world  more 
closely,  and  will  make  the  occupations  of  the  school  seem 
less  fictitious  than  they  ordinarily  do. 

Be  very  careful  to  interpret  wisely  tne  expression,  "  a 
child's  vocabulary."  This  often  conveys  to  people  an 
incorrect  idea.  There  is  not  one  set  of  words  for  child- 
hood and  another  set  of  words,  expressive  of  the  same 
ideas,  for  mature  life.  There  are  ideas  which  are  upper- 
most in  the  child's  mind  and  other  ideas  which  engage 
the  attention  of  developed  minds.  But,  when  the  child 
has  an  idea,  the  word  given  him  to  express  it  should  be 
the  word  that  older  persons  would  use  to  express  the 
same  idea.  There  is  no  rational  ground  for  either  the 
general  prevalence  of  "  baby  talk  "  on  the  part  of  those 
who  have  to  do  with  children  or  the  belief  that  a  small 
word  must  be  used  for  every  idea  with  a  child.  Words 
are  not  difficult  in  proportion  to  their  size.  It  is  the 
idea  that  is  the  troublesome  matter,  and,  when  that  is 
mastered,  a  large  word  is  as  simple  a  means  of  express- 
ing it  as  a  small  word,  provided  always  that  the  large 


READING.  199 

word  is  not  specially  complicated  in  its  pronunciation. 
Authorities  justly  condemn  the  practice  of  making  chil- 
dren "  entertaining  playthings  to  pass  away  the  time  for 
adults."  When  it  is  done  it  is  always  at  the  expense  of 
the  child's  healthy  development. 

Furthermore,  to  improve  a  child's  vocabulary  means 
more  than  simply  to  increase  the  number  of  words  at  his 
command ;  it  means  also  to  increase  his  understanding 
of  the  significance  of  words  which  he  already  uses.  This 
can  be  done  both  by  showing  the  wider  applications  of  a 
word  in  the  sense  in  which  he  knows  it,  and  also  by  giv- 
ing him  the  additional  meanings  of  the  word. 

When  the  child  begins  the  use  of  a  reading  book, 
and  even  when  he  is  reading  sentences  from  the  board, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  call  upon  him  frequently  to  tell  the 
truth  of  the  sentence,  paragraph,  or  stanza,  before  per- 
mitting him  to  read  it  aloud.  He  should  never  be  per- 
mitted to  begin  the  expression  of  a  sentence  until  he  has 
seen  the  entire  sentence  and  is  sure  he  can  pronounce 
all  its  words.  If,  in  addition  to  this,  we  require  him  to 
know  the  significance  of  a  sentence  before  permitting 
him  to  read  it  aloud,  we  shall  do  much  toward  establish- 
ing the  habit  of  regarding  meanings  as  paramount,  and 
words  as  valuable  simply  in  so  far  as  they  represent 
meanings.  The  effect  of  such  habit  upon  the  child's 
future  is  almost  immeasurable.  It  will  prevent  "  reading 
over  "  things  in  the  listless  manner  that  is  so  prevalent, 
as  well  as  the  practice  of  committing  to  memory  simply 
the  language  of  such  matters  as  should  be  addressed  to 
the  understanding. 


2OO  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

Advanced  Reading. 

It  is  not  intended  that  the  course  to  which  the  name 
Advanced  Reading  is  given  shall  be  so  advanced  as  to 
require  a  specialist  in  this  department  to  teach  it.  But, 
while  attention  is  to  be  directed  here  to  all  that  part  of 
reading  which  follows  a  mastery  of  the  fundamental 
mechanics  of  reading  as  treated  above,  it  is  well  to  re- 
member that  there  is  no  fixed  upper  limit.  If  a  specialist 
in  reading,  who  can  do  all  the  finer  work  in  expression, 
is  in  the  schools,  all  the  better  for  the  schools,  provided 
other  things  get  their  due  proportion  of  attention.  We 
shall  not  endeavor,  therefore,  to  discuss  in  this  connection 
all  the  problems  of  expression,  but  rather  to  present  the 
method  and  philosophy  of  reading  as  it  may  be  appre- 
ciated and  applied  by  the  teacher  of  ordinary  equipment. 

From  the  outset,  one  important  distinction  must  be  kept 
in  mind  ;  that  is,  the  distinction  between  the  drill  which  is 
to  increase  one's  skill  in  the  use  of  the  organs  of  expres- 
sion, and  the  drill  which  one  is  to  get  in  the  effort  at 
real  expression. 

The  first  of  these  rests  on  the  assumption  (and  the 
assumption  seems  warranted)  that  people  generally  have 
either  some  defect  in  the  organs  of  expression  or  some 
bad  habits  of  expression  which  need  to  be  corrected, 
before  they  can  give  the  best  utterance  to  thoughts  and 
sentiments  which  they  may  possess.  It  is  well  known 
that,  by  appropriate  exercises,  a  throat  naturally  weak 
and  troublesome  may  be  made  strong  ;  that  the  breath, 
usually  uncontrolled  and  escaping  in  convulsive  move- 
ments, may  be  so  mastered  as  to  avoid  waste  and  to  be 


READING.  201 

converted  into  a  regular,  steady  tone  ;  that  angular  and 
awkward  movements  of  the  body  may  be  supplanted  by 
graceful  and  easy  ones.  But  all  of  these  things,  and 
many  others,  such  as  range  and  flexibility  of  tone,  ges- 
ture, poise,  and  facial  expression,  presuppose,  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher,  a  special  preparation  not  generally  found 
in  those  who  preside  over  our  schools.  The  elements 
of  clear  articulation  and  correct  pronunciation,  however, 
may  be  attended  to  by  all  qualified  teachers,  and  should 
receive  attention  throughout  all  the  grades  and  in  all 
classes  where  oral  language  is  used.  The  ability  to  do 
these  things  must  become  crystallized  into  the  habit  of 
doing  them,  or  else  the  child,  with  all  his  ability,  will 
fail  to  read  in  a  smooth  and  artistic  manner.  To  this 
end,  drill  upon  suitable  words  should  be  frequent ;  but  in 
such  drill  the  words  should  generally  be  divorced  from 
thought  —  should  not  be  used  in  sentences. 

When  the  words  are  put  into  sentences,  so  that  the 
learner  may  get  drill  in  the  utterance  of  them  in  differ- 
ent series,  we  should  do  whatever  is  necessary  to  keep 
him  from  confusing,  in  his  thought,  such  an  exercise  in 
vocal  utterance  with  real  reading. 
Examples :  — 

Peter  Piper  picked  a  peck  of  pickled  peppers. 

Where  is  the  peck  of  pickled  peppers  Peter  Piper  picked? 

Some  shun  sunshine.     Do  you  shun  sunshine? 

With  these  obvious  exceptions  attended  to  we  must 
dismiss  this  phase  of  our  problem,  therefore,  as  being 
unsuited  to  existing  conditions  ;  and,  while  we  deplore  the 
fact,  continue  to  entertain  the  hope  that  the  time  is  not 


2O2  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

far  distant  when  this  element  of  professional  fitness  will 
be  added  to  the  steadily  increasing  list  of  advances  along 
other  lines. 

Assuming,  then,  that  we  must  take  the  child  as  we  find 
him;  with  his  mechanism  of  expression  distorted,  and  no 
means  of  remedying  it  at  hand,  we  must  address  our- 
selves to  the  second  element  of  our  problem,  —  that  of 
improving  his  ability  to  use  an  imperfect  instrument  in 
real  expression. 

As  a  comprehensive  guide  to  all  that  shall  be  said,  the 
following  is  announced  :  — 

Practical  mastery  of  time,  pitch,  force,  quality,  slides, 
etc.,  can  be  secured  only  by  making  them  the  outcome  of  an 
appreciation  of  the  thought  and  feeling  of  that  which  is 
to  be  read. 

Definite  mechanical  rules  regarding  pitch,  pauses, 
slides,  etc.,  are  usually  worse  than  useless.  Reading  is 
giving  expression  to  a  state  of  mind ;  it  is  not  the  utter- 
ance of  a  series  of  sounds  suggested  by  the  printed  page. 
The  flexibility  of  voice  which  characterizes  earnest  con- 
versation may  be  taken  as  the  best  example  of  the  end 
to  be  aimed  at  in  reading.  Not  that  reading  is  the  same 
thing  as  talking  ;  it  is  a  much  more  difficult  act.  In 
talking  we  have  our  own  ideas,  their  flow  is  determined 
by  a  goal  which  we  have  set  for  ourselves  and  by  the 
unchecked  tendency  of  the  mind  in  reaching  its  ends ; 
in  reading  we  are  confined  to  the  ideas  of  another,  which 
ofttimes  we  do  not  fully  appropriate,  and  we  are 
hampered  by  the  necessity  of  giving  direction  to  our 
thoughts  step  by  step  as  we  interpret  the  printed  page. 
This  effort  to  comprehend  the  meaning  and  aim  of  an 


READING.  2O3 

author,  which  is  too  often  not  completed  before  expres- 
sion is  begun,  hinders  the  rise  of  appropriate  emotion. 
We  do  not  thus  think  his  thoughts  after  him,  and  live  the 
experiences  through  which  he  passed,  but  we  exhaust 
our  energies  in  the  purely  intellectual  effort  of  finding 
out  what  his  thoughts  and  sentiments  were.  There  is 
a  vast  difference  between  the  mental  effort  required  to 
search  out  the  words  and  their  significance,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  transport  one's  self  in  imagination  to  the 
midst  of  a  scene  such  as  must  have  filled  the  mind  of 
the  author  when  he  wrote  the  following  :  — 

Have  you  seen  an  apple  orchard  in  the  spring? 

In  the  spring? 

An  English  apple  orchard  in  the  spring? 

When  the  spreading  trees  are  hoary  with  their  wealth  of  promised  glory, 
And  the  mavis  pipes  his  story  in  the  spring? 

Have  you  plucked  the  apple  blossoms  in  the  spring? 

In  the  spring? 

And  caught  their  subtle  odors  in  the  spring? 
Pink  buds  bursting  at  the  light,  crumpled  petals  baby-white, 
Just  to  touch  them  a  delight  in  the  spring ! 

Have  you  walked  beneath  the  blossoms  in  the  spring? 

In  the  spring? 

Beneath  the  apple  blossoms  in  the  spring? 

When  the  pink  cascades  were  falling,  and  the  silver  brooklets  brawling, 
And  the  cuckoo  bird  is  calling  in  the  spring? 

Have  you  seen  a  merry  bridal  in  the  spring? 

In  the  spring? 

In  an  English  apple  country  in  the  spring? 

When  the  brides  and  maidens  wear  apple  blossoms  in  their  hair ; 
Apple  blossoms  everywhere,  in  the  spring? 

If  you  have  not,  then  you  know  not,  in  the  spring, 

In  the  spring, 

Half  the  color,  beauty,  wonder  of  the  spring. 
No  sight  can  I  remember,  half  so  precious,  half  so  tender, 

As  the  apple  blossoms  render  in  the  spring  ! 
William  Welsey  Martin,  quoted  in  Curry's  "Lessons  in  Vocal  Expression" 


2O4  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

Since  it  is  necessary  that  the  child  should  get  him- 
self into  an  appreciative  state  of  mind  before  he  can  read 
with  real  expression,  it  follows  that  he  should  do  much 
silent  reading  to  familiarize  himself  with  the  author's 
words,  and  also  be  led  by  appropriate  conversation  and 
other  means  into  the  state  of  mind  to  be  expressed,  before 
he  undertakes  to  read  aloud.  When  the  language  is  his, 
and  the  sentiment  to  be  expressed  is  entered  into,  he  will 
approach  in  his  reading  as  near  as  possible  to  the  ease 
and  unrestraint  of  talking.  With  either  of  these  ele- 
ments neglected,  no  rules  for  modulation,  pitch,  rate,  or 
any  other  objective  quality  of  expression  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  render  the  child's  reading  anything  else  than 
artificial. 

Let  me  repeat,  then,  that  while  talking  through  the 
nose,  mumbling  words,  misplacing  accent,  or  other  errors 
in  articulation  and  pronunciation  may  all  be  corrected 
by  definite  drill  exercises  of  a  somewhat  mechanical 
nature ;  and,  while  definite  directions  may  be  given  to 
guide  the  learner  in  such  drill  exercises,  Jhese  things  are 
only  the  means  of  expression,  and  do  not  constitute  the 
real  essence  of  the  matter.  While  this  is  being  done 
(and  its  importance  is  conceded),  we  are  merely  getting 
the  child's  instruments  of  expression  into  good  working 
condition,  so  that  they  will  serve  him  when  he  comes  to 
the  act  of  expression.  We  are  habituating  his  mechan- 
ism to  correct  action,  whereas  it  has  been  growing 
accustomed  to  an  incorrect  form.  Expression  or  read- 
ing comes  only  where  there  is  a  vital  thought  and  senti- 
ment to  be  made  manifest.  For  this  there  are  no  direc- 
tions for  the  exhibition  of  external  feats  that  are  adequate, 


READING.  205 

if  the  individual  is  not  filled  with  the  sentiment  itself ; 
if  he  is  thus  filled,  directions  are  unnecessary.  What- 
ever emphasizes  these  externals  renders  the  reading  a 
mere  matter  of  manner,  without  touching  the  real  inner 
cause  of  true  expression. 

That  we  may  not  seem  to  be  beating  at  mere  shadows 
in  urging  the  fruitlessness  of  directions  respecting  pauses, 
inflection,  stress,  etc.,  we  append  the  following  rules, 
merely  to  show  what  may  be  found  in  works  of  recog- 
nized authority  in  a  certain  kind  of  elocution,  and  what 
one  may  hear  taught  in  a  large  number  of  classes  in 
reading :  — 

"  In  general  make  a  slight  pause  at  a  comma  ;  a  longer 
pause  at  a  semicolon  ;  and  a  still  longer  pause  at  a 
period." 

"  A  rhetorical  pause  should  be  made  between  the 
subject  and  the  predicate  of  a  sentence  when  the  subject 
is  emphatic,  or  when  it  consists  of  a  phrase  or  a  clause, 
or  of  a  noun  modified  by  a  phrase  or  a  clause." 

"  Make  a  rhetorical  pause  before  a  clause  used  as 
a  predicate  nominative,  or  as  the  object  of  a  verb." 

(In  one  work  alone,  ten  rules  like  the  above  are  given 
for  pauses.) 

"  Questions  requiring  yes  or  no  for  an  answer  have  the 
rising  inflection,  except  when  very  emphatic." 

"  Words  repeated  in  surprise  take  the  rising  inflection, 
and  are  emphatic." 

"  Words  and  phrases  of  address,  unless  very  emphatic, 
take  the  slight  rising  inflection." 

(In  all,  there  are  twenty-two  rules  for  rising,  falling, 
and  contrasted  inflections.) 


2O6  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

Further,  we  are  told  that  the  "  radical  stress  is  the 
stress  of  animation,  of  earnestness,  of  assertion,  of  com- 
mand, and  of  passion." 

Again,  "  Fast  or  quick  movement  is  the  characteris- 
tic rate  in  the  expression  of  mirth,  fun,  humor,  gladness, 
joy,  and  haste."  "Joy,  mirth,  and  gayety  incline  the 
voice  to  pure  tone  and  high  pitch.  Calling  to  persons  at 
a  distance  inclines  the  voice  to  high  pitch  and  pure  tone. 
Anger,  courage,  boldness,  and  exultation  incline  the 
voice  to  high  pitch  and  loud  force." 

It  seems  useless  to  give  more  examples  to  show  how 
stilted  and  artificial  all  reading  must  become  that  is 
produced  through  the  observance  of  rules  like  the  above. 
Where  the  rule  does  not  contain  more  complicated  con- 
ditions than  any  intelligence  can  embrace  while  occupied 
in  reading,  it  is  either  untrue  or  an  expression  of  surface 
results  which  never  need  to  be  aimed  at,  if  only  we  get 
the  reader  into  the  state  of  mind  portrayed  in  what  is 
being  read. 

Our  one  fundamental  guide,  then,  to  all  true  and 
successful  teaching  of  advanced  reading  is  this  :  — 

Give  mechanical  drill  in  whatever  will  improve  the 
organs  of  expression  and  habituate  them  to  proper  action. 
When  thought  and  sentiment  are  present  to  be  expressed, 
familiarize  the  child  first  with  the  language  in  which  they 
are  expressed  ;  then  do  whatever  is  required  to  bring  him, 
at  least  in  imagination,  into  the  state  of  mind  which  is  to 
be  expressed. 

If,  when  these  things  are  observed,  the  child  reads  too 
fast  or  too  slow,  in  too  high  a  key  or  with  faulty  inflec- 
tions, you  may  attribute  it  to  misunderstanding  of  what 


READING.  2O7 

is  being  read,  to  bad  habits  of  customary  speech  simi- 
lar to  those  now  manifest  in  his  reading,  or  to  "stage 
fright,"  which  causes  lack  of  control,  even  without  the 
individual  being  aware  of  it.  When  the  teacher  finds 
which  of  these  is  the  cause  of  the  bad  reading,  he  knows 
where  to  apply  a  rational  remedy  for  the  present  defect ; 
if  he  cannot  find  the  cause,  no  number  of  rules  for  cor- 
rect reading  will  be  of  any  avail. 

Remember,  finally,  that  oral  reading  is  an  art ;  and  it 
is  an  art,  like  instrumental  music,  which  employs  the 
muscles  of  the  body  (a  mechanical  art).  Therefore,  no 
matter  how  large  a  number  of  definitions  and  rules  one 
may  recite  with  accuracy,  he  will  become  a  successful 
reader  only  by  practicing,  under  rational  guidance,  the 
muscle  exercise  of  expression.  The  only  rational 
guidance  for  such  exercise  must  come  from  the  mind 
of  him  who  exercises,  and,  to  this  end,  the  reader 
must  be  filled  with  that  to  which  he  would  give  ex- 
pression. 

In  corroboration  of  this  view,  take  any  class  of  ordinary 
intelligence,  and  with  maturity  enough  to  appreciate  what 
is  to  be  read  ;  converse  with  them,  explain  to  them,  and 
question  them  till  you  get  them  into  sympathy  with  the 
sentiment  to  be  expressed  ;  then,  without  a  word  about 
any  of  the  mechanics  of  reading,  have  them  read  the 
appended  selections.  Note  how  they  vary  the  pitch, 
time,  quality  of  tone,  inflection,  pauses,  etc.,  to  suit  the 
varying  sentiments  aroused  in  them.  If  they  give  what 
you  regard  as  a  wrong  emphasis,  or  pause  at  the  wrong 
place,  say  nothing  about  changing  the  emphasis  or  the 
pause,  but  ask  such  questions  as  may  be  answered  in 


2O8  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

the  language  of  that  which  they  are  reading,  and  note 
how  naturally  they  will  correct  the  faulty  emphasis  or 
pause. 

TEST  EXERCISES  IN  ADVANCED  READING. 

Away  to  the  hills,  to  the  caves,  to  the  rocks,  — 
Ere  I  own  a  usurper,  I  '11  couch  with  the  fox ; 
And  tremble,  false  Whigs,  in  the  midst  of  your  glee, 
You  have  not  seen  the  last  of  my  bonnet  and  me. 

Scott. 

Crossing  the  Bar. 

Sunset  and  evening  star,  and  one  clear  call  for  me ! 

And  may  there  be  no  moaning  of  the  bar  when  I  put   out  to 

sea, 
But  such  a  tide  as  moving  seems  asleep,  too  full  for  sound  and 

foam, 
When  that  which  draws  from  out  the  boundless  deep  turns  again 

home. 

Twilight  and  evening  bell,  and  after  that  the  dark ! 

And  may  there  be  no  sadness  of  farewell,  when  I  embark ; 

For  tho'  from  out  our  bourne  of  time  and  place  the  flood  may 

bear  me  far, 

I  hope  to  see  my  Pilot  face  to  face  when  I  have  crossed  the  bar. 

Tennyson. 

Let  our  object  be  our  country,  our  whole  country,  and  nothing 
but  our  country.  And,  by  the  blessing  of  God,  may  that  country 
become  a  vast  and  splendid  monument,  not  of  oppression  and 
terror,  but  of  wisdom,  of  peace,  and  of  liberty,  upon  which  the 
world  may  gaze  with  admiration  forever. 

Daniel  Webster. 


READING.  209 


The  Wind  That  Kissed  the  Rose ;  or, 
The  Scandal  in  the  Garden. 

All  the  garden  was  astonished 

At  the  scandal  running  there ; 
All  the  mother-flowers  admonished 

All  their  daughters  to  beware ; 
Every  pretty  pansy  pouted 

Underneath  her  Quaker  hood, 
And  the  peonies  fairly  shouted 

With  amazement  where  they  stood. 

And  the  poppies  from  their  languor 

Seemed  to  waken  for  a  spell, 
When  the  columbines  in  anger 

Clattered  every  purple  bell. 
While  nasturtiums,  stern  in  duty, 

Leaned  against  the  garden  wall, 
And  each  portulaca  beauty 

Shut  her  crimson  parasol. 

All  the  larkspurs  in  their  places 

Grew  as  blue  as  blue  could  be  ; 
And  the  sunflowers  turned  their  faces, 

That  they  might  not  seem  to  see. 
And  the  modest  morning-glory 

Hastened  all  her  ears  to  close, 
When  she  heard  the  dreadful  story,' 

That  the  Wind  had  kissed  the  Rose. 

Oh  !  was  ever  such  a  scandal 

In  the  garden  heard  before  ? 
And  the  wind  —  the  saucy  vandal  — 

They  would  countenance  no  more ; 
And  the  wanton  rose  should  rue  it 

Till  the  moment  of  her  death. 
There  was  no  mistake  —  they  knew  it, 

For  they  smelled  it  on  his  breath. 


2IO  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

And  in  virtuous  indignation, 

How  they  toss  their  pretty  heads, 
As  the  terrible  relation 

Round  about  the  garden  spreads ! 
But  their  modest  daisy  sister, 

When  she  heard  them  all  condemn, 
Wondered  how  they  knew  he  kissed  her, 

If  he  was  n't  kissing  them. 

Lee  O.  Harris. 

On  His  Blindness. 

When  I  consider  how  my  light  is  spent 
Ere  half  my  days,  in  this  dark  world  and  wide, 
And  that  one  talent  which  is  death  to  hide 
Lodged  with  me  useless,  though  my  soul  more  bent 
To  serve  therewith  my  Maker,  and  present 
My  true  account,  lest  He  returning  chide,  — 
Doth  God  exact  day-labor,  light  denied  ? 
I  fondly  ask  :  — But  Patience,  to  prevent 
That  murmur,  soon  replies  :  God  doth  not  need 
Either  man's  work,  or  His  own  gifts :  who  best 
Bear  His  mild  yoke,  they  serve  Him  best:  His  state 
Is  kingly  ;  thousands  at  His  bidding  speed 
And  post  o'er  land  and  ocean  without  rest :  — 
They  also  serve  who  only  stand  and  wait. 

Milton. 

Rabbit  in  the  Cross-Ties. 

Rabbit  in  the  cross-ties,  — 

Punch  him  out  —  quick ! 
Git  a  twister  on  him 

With  a  long  prong  stick. 
Watch  him  on  the  south  side  — 

Watch  him  on  the  —  Hi !  — 
There  he  goes !     Sic  him,Tige  ! 

Yi!  Yi!!  Yi!!! 

Riley. 


READING.  211 

General  Suggestions.  Every  teacher  should  be  a 
clear,  easy,  sympathetic  reader,  because  the  reading  of 
the  teacher  will  become  very  largely  the  model  for 
the  children.  Children  should  hear  much  good  read- 
ing of  a  grade  suited  to  their  capacity.  In  this  way 
their  taste  for  suitable  reading  "may  be  cultivated, 
their  fund  of  information  greatly  increased,  and  their 
capacity  for  enjoyment  enlarged. 

Though  the  teacher  should  read  much  to  the  children 
and  serve  as  their  model,  still  they  should  not  be  allowed 
an  opportunity  for  direct  imitation.  If  they  are  studying 
a  certain  selection,  the  teacher  may  read  a  paragraph  ; 
but  the  child  should  not  be  called  upon  then  to  read 
that  same  paragraph.  The  teacher  may  with  profit  take 
this  means  of  interpreting  for  the  children  the  spirit  of 
a  selection,  and  the  children  should  be  required  then  to 
read  the  other  parts  of  the  selection. 

In  the  reading  class  there  should  be  many  exercises 
that  will  require  the  learners  to  get  thought.  This  may 
be  done  by  paraphrasing,  epitomizing,  illustrating  by 
drawings,  reviewing,  criticising,  or  discussing  the  various 
writings. 

Beyond  the  third,  or  at  most  the  fourth,  reader  there 
should  be  very  little  work  done  from  the  ordinary  read- 
ing book.  If  the  series  of  books  in  use  contains  articles 
that  are  worth  knowing,  they  may  with  profit  be  used 
for  exercises  in  reading.  But,  if  the  books  contain 
articles  chosen  merely  with  a  view  to  having  them  serve 
the  purpose  of  a  reading  exercise,  they  should  be  set 
aside,  and  in  their  place  should  be  substituted  such 
books  as  geographical  readers,  historical  readers,  nature 


Ill  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

readers,  stepping-stones  to  literature,  and  actual  literary 
productions  in  poetry  or  prose ;  in  a  word,  such  works 
as  present  something  to  learn  that  is  worthy  of  a  child's 
time  and  'effort  at  the  same  time  that  they  furnish  the 
material  for  a  reading  exercise. 

All  that  has  been  said  concerning  the  unwisdom  of 
giving  children  rules  for  pitch,  inflection,  emphasis,  etc., 
as  a  means  of  making  their  reading  natural,  should  not 
deter  the  teacher  from  making  himself  familiar  with  all 
these  elements  of  effective  reading.  He  should  know 
what  they  are,  because  then  he  will  know  what  different 
elements  need  attention  in  training  the  child  to  read. 
It  does  not  follow  from  this,  however,  that  the  way  to 
make  a  child  a  good  reader  is  to  call  his  attention  to  the 
plan  of  emphasis,  inflection,  pitch,  etc.,  and  to  have  him 
read  according  to  rules  of  each.  If  we  wish  a  child  to 
learn  to  walk  gracefully,  we  do  not  call  to  his  attention 
the  method  of  moving  his  arms,  feet,  hands,  etc.,  though 
the  director  should  have  knowledge  of  each  of  these 
items ;  we  direct  his  attention  to  the  one  central  ele- 
ment, the  carriage  of  his  body ;  then  we  have  him  fix 
his  mind  upon  an  objective  point,  and  he  moves  toward 
it  with  ease  and  grace.  Just  so  in  reading.  When  we 
have  trained  the  vocal  mechanism  to  act  with  ease  and 
correctness,  we  should  stimulate  the  mind  to  an  appreci- 
ation of  the  sentiment  to  be  expressed,  and  then  the 
expression  will  follow  with  naturalness ;  pauses  will  be 
observed,  as  in  talking ;  inflections  will  be  correct ;  and 
the  pitch  and  time  will  of  necessity  reveal  the  state  of 
the  reader's  mind. 


LANGUAGE    LESSONS.  213 


CHAPTER   XIV. 
LANGUAGE  LESSONS. 

LANGUAGE  lessons  must  be  clearly  distinguished  from 
the  earliest  lessons  in  formal  grammar,  with  which  they 
are  often  identified,  because  the  aims  of  the  two  subjects 
are  different  and  the  resulting  methods  must  be  different. 

The  aim  of  the  language  lessons  is  the  development 
of  proper  habits  in  the  use  of  language.  This  can  be 
done  only  in  the  way  in  which  all  habits  must  be  formed, 
-  by  repeating  persistently  the  acts  which  we  desire  to 
make  habitual.  The  study  of  rules  of  language  will  not 
accomplish  the  desired  end  in  the  language  class.  True, 
a  knowledge  of  the  rules  of  syntax,  which  should  be 
given  later,  will  fortify  the  learner  in  his  use  of  correct 
forms,  and  also  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  correction  of  any 
improper  forms  to  which  he  may  have  become  accus- 
tomed. But  his  knowledge  of  such  rules  cannot  be 
taken  as  a  guarantee  of  his  use  of  the  forms  which  they 
prescribe.  Language,  and  especially  oral  language, 
must  be  wrought  into  the  very  being  of  the  child, 
through  use,  so  that,  when  his  mind  is  occupied  with  a 
subject  of  thought,  his  language  mechanism  will  work 
in  obedience  to  that  thinking,  and  proper  expression  will 
be  the  easy  and  natural  result.  Knowledge  of  correct 
forms  cannot  accomplish  this  ;  nothing  but  a  habit  of 
correct  doing  can  bring  it  about, 


214  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

Our  first  position,  then,  is  that  the  language  class  is 
not  the  place  for  the  study  and  recitation  of  easy  defini- 
tions in  grammar  ;  neither  is  it  the  place  for  much  recita- 
tion of  the  rules  of  grammar.  If  rules  are  given  at  all,  it 
is  to  the  end  that  they  may  be  used  in  the  construction 
of  the  child's  oral  or  written  language.  It  is  the  place 
for  him  to  think  and  talk  and  write ;  and  while  this  is 
being  done,  the  forms  of  his  expression  should  receive 
the  attention  of  his  teacher.  If  they  are  correct,  they 
should  be  emphasized  and  repeated  ;  if  they  are  incorrect, 
they  should  be  put  aside  and  correct  ones  substituted. 

But  a  child  cannot  be  expected  to  manifest  a  lively 
interest  in  mere  forms  of  language,  unless  he  is  given 
something  interesting  to  think  about,  which  will  make 
an  occasion  for  his  use  of  language.  This,  then,  indi- 
cates that,  if  our  method  of  procedure  is  to  be  a  wise 
one,  it  must  not  be  a  purely  formal  one,  in  which  the 
subject  matter  is  of  no  consequence,  and  the  form  of 
expression  is  everything.  Doubtless,  if  children  were 
interested  enough  to  desire  correct  speech,  such  formal 
work  would  suffice  to  give  it  to  them  ;  but  when  we 
are  compelled  to  arouse  their  interest  in  learning  at 
the  same  time  that  we  are  engaged  in  helping  them  to 
learn  proper  language  forms,  we  should  select,  as  the 
occasion  for  their  use  of  language,  the  subjects  about 
which  they  may  wish  to  speak  or  write. 

Sentences  should,  therefore,  be  taken  as  the  language 
units  with  which  to  begin  this  study.  In  these  the  cor- 
rect or  incorrect  forms  will  appear.  Now  that  the  words 
are  associated  with  thought,  they  constitute  language ; 
apart  from  thought,  they  are  simply  sounds  or  forms. 


LANGUAGE    LESSONS.  215 

Single  words  from  these  sentences,  which  may  need 
especial  study,  may  now  be  isolated  for  that  purpose,  be- 
cause at  this  time  the  child  can  fully  realize  the  aim  of 
such  fragmentary  study,  and  is  thereby  rendered  intelli- 
gent in  his  work. 

Since  language  lessons  are  for  the  purpose  of  fix- 
ing habits  in  the  life  of  the  child,  we  should  note  care- 
fully the  two  antecedent  conditions  of  habit  formation. 
Sometimes  an  ideal  can  be  worked  out  in  the  intelligence 
of  the  learner,  and  a  distinct  effort  be  put  forth  to  reach 
it  by  means  which  the  learner  fully  comprehends.  This, 
however,  is  confined  pretty  largely  to  the  few  choice 
souls  of  superior  mold.  More  frequently  the  ideal 
must  be  presented  by  another  person,  and  it  is  generally 
presented  with  greatest  force,  not  by  precepts,  but  in  the 
life.  This,  then,  is  copied  by  the  learner  either  inten- 
tionally or  unintentionally  until  it  becomes  the  fixed 
condition  of  his  life.  The  teacher's  use  of  language, 
therefore,  both  in  the  language  class  and  elsewhere,  must 
largely  condition  the  child's  use  of  it.  It  is  perhaps 
equally  true  that  the  child's  environment  at  home  and 
elsewhere  will  play  an  important  part  in  determining  his 
language  habits  ;  but  this,  if  it  is  bad,  the  teacher  can 
only  deplore  and  labor  to  overcome.  His  own  part  he 
can  prevent  from  being  wrong.  Proper  thinking  (such 
as  can  be  engendered  by  familiarity  with  the  best  in 
literature)  and  proper  speaking,  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  will  do  much  toward  insuring  success  in  the 
language  classes  of  the  school. 

The  actual  speech  and  writing  of  the  children  should 
constitute  the  material  for  the  language  class.  Every 


2l6  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

recitation  affords  an  exercise  in  language,  but  such 
incidental  work  is  not  enough.  Bad  habits  can  easily 
be  formed  incidentally,  but  they  cannot  be  removed  and 
the  corresponding  good  ones  substituted  except  as  the 
result  of  patient  effort.  The  language  of  children  should 
be  carefully  observed ;  their  errors  should  be  noted ; 
these  should  be  classified,  and  be  used  as  the  material 
for  the  language  lessons ;  evidently,  then,  no  language 
book  should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  learner  for  this  work. 
The  teacher  must  decide  upon  the  subject  matter  for 
each  day's  lesson,  and  the  child's  work  upon  the  lesson 
will  be  to  carry  out  what  has  there  been  taught.  The 
teacher  may  have  a  book,  and  should  indeed  have 
several  different  ones ;  from  these  he  may  get  sugges- 
tions as  to  what  should  be  looked  for,  how  best  to  classify 
the  common  errors,  in  what  order  they  may  best  be  cor- 
rected, etc.  It  is  in  this  way  that  the  experience  of 
eminent  teachers  may  be  made  available  to  those  less 
advance^ ;  and  this  is  making  a  rational  use  of  the  ele- 
mentary language  book. 

Scope  of  the  Work. 

It  is  not  the  intention  to  point  out  in  this  place  the 
detailed  forms  which  are  to  be  taught,  and  the  specific 
plans  by  which  this  is  to  be  accomplished.  We  shall 
aim  rather  at  giving  a  larger  survey  of  the  work  to  be 
done,  and  trust  to  the  teacher  to  get  detailed  informa- 
tion from  books  on  language. 

I.  Grammatical  Correctness  of  Expression.  In  most 
language  teaching  this  is  the  first  and  only  thing  that 
receives  attention.  Certain  well-established  errors  have 


LANGUAGE    LESSONS. 

pushed  themselves  so  much  to  the  front  in  the  language 
of  school  children  that  teachers  have  grown  to  expect 
them  ;  and,  true  to  the  traditional  idea  of  their  critical 
office,  they  are  generally  prepared  to  detect  and  correct 
them.  Too  much  cannot  be  said  in  praise  of  the  effort 
to  improve  the  language  of  children  in  this  respect. 
Correct  English  is  one  of  the  most  evident  signs  of  good 
breeding,  and,  without  it,  scarcely  any  amount  of  social 
polish  or  even  moral  good-will  can  atone  for  its  absence, 
or  give  one  a  place  in  the  midst  of  men  of  education. 
But  have  we  always  sought  to  attain  this  end  by  wise 
means  ?  Much  time  has  been  given  to  reciting  defini- 
tions of  the  various  parts  of  speech,  or  rules  of  syntax 
for  the  government  of  various  forms  in  sentence  con- 
struction ;  great  effort  has  been  expended  upon  parsing 
and  the  correction  of  " false  syntax";  weary  months 
have  been  consumed  in  the  analysis  of  detached  sen- 
tences, —  and  all  this  with  a  view  to  correcting,  in  some 
mysterious  way,  the  child's  use  of  English,  while  at 
the  same  time  he  is  permitted,  through  speech  and 
writing,  in  class,  upon  the  playground,  everywhere,  to 
fasten  more  and  more  firmly  upon  his  life  the  incorrect 
forms  of  daily  use.  This  he  does  without  any  thought 
that  the  mental  effort  expended  upon  his  lessons  in  ele- 
mentary grammar  might  be  put  to  so  much  greater 
profit,  at  this  time,  if  directed  to  the  improvement  of  his 
actual  speech  and  writing.  He  is  being  deluded  into  the 
belief  that  language  is  a  thing  to  be  gained  from  books, 
whereas  it  has  been  fastening  itself  upon  his  life  from 
babyhood ;  and  the  same  practice  that  fixed  it  then 
must,  in  so  far  as  there  are  incorrect  forms  present,  be 


U 


2l8  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

appealed  to  in  ridding  the  child  of  the  false  and  estab- 
lishing upon  him  the  true. 

Two  general  forms  of  correct  language  should  engage 
the  teacher's  effort,  —  oral  language  and  written  language. 
There  are  errors  that  can  appear  only  in  speech,  others 
that  are  confined  to  writing,  and  still  others  common  to 
both.  Because  of  this,  the  language  lesson  must  not  be 
thought  of  as  merely  a  lesson  in  written  composition. 
The  amount  of  oral  language  work  should  be  far  in 
excess  of  the  amount  of  written  work. 

Correct  pronunciation  and  articulation,  while  in  a 
peculiar  sense  items  for  the  reading  class,  should  receive 
most  careful  attention  in  the  language  class  also.  Spell- 
ing, especially  of  plural  forms,  possessive  forms,  etc., 
is  a  matter  which  should  be  specially  watched  in  the 
language  lesson.  Capitalization  and  punctuation,  quota- 
tions and  abbreviations,  syllabification  and  paragraphing, 
are  all  items  which  the  language  teacher  must  impress. 
Of  the  errors  common  to  both  speech  and  writing  there 
are  many,  but  all  of  these  have  been  classified  by  Sarah 
L.  Arnold  under  four  distinct  heads,  —  the  plural  forms 
of  nouns,  the  agreement  of  noun  and  verb,  the  case  forms 
of  pronouns,  and  the  tense  forms  of  irregular  verbs. 

The  order  in  which  these  items  may  be  taken  up,  the 
details  of  the  several  cases  given  above,  and  the  devices 
for  teaching  them  successfully  may  all  be  obtained  from 
the  various  language  books  now  upon  the  market.  As 
a  guide  to  the  inexperienced  teacher,  mention  may  be 
made  of  such  books  as  Mary  F.  Hyde's  "  Practical 
Lessons  in  the  Use  of  English,"  Mrs.  N.  L.  Knox's 
"How  to  Speak  and  Write  Correctly,"  and  M.  W. 


LANGUAGE    LESSONS.  2IQ 

Hazen's  "  First  Book  of  Observation,  Thought,  and 
Expression." 

2.  Clearness  of  Expression.  Correct  forms  of  noun 
or  pronoun  with  verb,  and  all  other  strictly  grammatical 
elements  of  English  sentences,  might  be  fixed  with  accu- 
racy in  a  child's  speech  and  writing,  so  that  everything 
uttered  could  be  parsed  or  analyzed  correctly,  and  still 
his  language  might  lack  clearness. 

This  imperfection  may  arise  either  from  obscure  think- 
ing or  from  careless  utterance,  due  to  giving  insufficient 
attention  to  our  words.  "  All  men  who  were  there  were 
not  interested,"  is  an  example  of  the  latter.  If  these 
words  are  interpreted  just  as  they  are  uttered,  instead  of 
as  they  are  meant,  we  must  conclude  that  the  speaker  is 
saying  something  about  all  the  men  present  at  a  certain 
place,  and  that  he  is  asserting  of  them  all  that  they  were 
not  interested.  In  fact,  such  a  sentence  is  generally  used 
when  it  would  be  clearer  to  assert  that  "  not  all  the 
men  who  were  there  were  interested,"  or  that  "  some  of 
the  men  who  were  there  were  not  interested."  This  is 
what  is  meant,  and  therefore  it  is  what  should  be  said. 
Other  suggestive  examples  are :  "  Lysias  promised  his 
father  never  to  abandon  his  friends";  "  Parmenio  had 
served,  with  great  fidelity,  Phillip  the  father  of  Alex- 
ander, as  well  as  himself,  for  whom  he  first  opened  the 
way  into  Asia"  ;  "Thus  ended  the  war  with  Antiochus, 
twelve  years  after  the  second  Punic  war,  and  two  after 
it  had  been  begun."  In  all  of  these  the  speaker  doubt- 
less knows  just  what  is  intended,  but  the  careless 
arrangement  of  his  phrases  leaves  the  hearer  in  great 
doubt  as  to  what  is  meant. 


22O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

To  distinguish  by  examples  between  the  cases  of 
careless  utterance  growing  out  of  insufficient  attention 
to  language  and  the  cases  of  loose  and  imperfect  think- 
ing is  a  very  difficult  matter,  because  both  are  revealed 
through  sentences  which  fail  to  express  exactly  what 
should  be  said.  In  the  above  sentences,  a  few  questions 
would  reveal  the  fact  that  the  speaker  thinks  correctly, 
but  speaks  with  indifference.  In  such  as  the  following 
it  will  generally  be  found  that  his  thinking  and  his 
speech  are  both  hazy  and  uncertain :  "  If  three-fourths 
of  a  number  is  twelve,  one-fourth  is  one-third  of  twelve, 
or  four,  and  four-fourths  are  four  times  four,  or  sixteen  "  ; 
"  The  product  of  the  sum  and  difference  of  two  num- 
bers equals  the  difference  of  their  squares "  ;  "  Feet 
multiplied  by  feet  give  square  feet."  Inquiry  for  the 
base  in  the  first ;  the  two  numbers,  their  sum,  their 
difference,  which  one  is  subtracted  from  the  other,  in  the 
second  ;  and  the  character  of  the  multiplier  in  the  third 
will  reveal  the  fact  that  the  trouble  lies  in  the  child's 
faulty  thinking. 

Improvement  in  clearness  of  expression  must,  then, 
be  brought  about  by  increased  accuracy  in  thought. 
Well-chosen  questions,  which  will  require  the  child  to 
analyze  his  expressions,  are  the  teacher's  means  of  forc- 
ing accuracy  in  thought.  Not  only  will  the  child's 
improved  thinking  make  his  speech  clearer,  but  also 
absolutely  exact  speech  will  react  upon  his  thought, 
clarifying  that  and  rendering  him  dissatified  with  mere 
approximations  to  the  truth.  Because  of  this,  exagger- 
ated or  otherwise  untrue  forms  of  expression  should  be 
carefully  guarded  against  or  corrected.  This  may,  in 


LANGUAGE    LESSONS.  221 

time,  become  a  matter  of  moral  training,  whereas  it  is 
at  present  only  an  exercise  in  language.  Exaggeration 
and  all  other  forms  of  untruth  convey  error  to  the  mind, 
and  hence  deceive.  When  these  become  habitual  the 
individual's  life  is  then  tending  strongly  in  the  direction 
which  makes  the  confirmed  liar.  Only  the  addition  of 
malintent,  the  purpose  to  deceive,  needs  to  be  made, 
and  the  person  finds  himself  already  equipped  with  the 
ability  to  execute  his  purpose  with  vigor. 

3.  Force  and  Beauty  of  Expression.  Along  with  se- 
curing correct  grammatical  forms  and  clear,  truthful 
expressions  should  come  an  increase  in  the  force  and 
beauty  of  language.  This  is  not  accomplished  by  having 
children  recite  and  discuss  the  rules  of  rhetoric  but  by 
practice,  just  as  correct  grammatical  forms  must  be 
made  habitual,  not  by  discussing  grammatical  rules,  but 
by  using  in  speech  and  writing  the  various  truths  of 
construction  which  are  embodied  in  rules. 

It  is  conceded  that  one's  style  could  more  certainly  be 
made  both  correct  and  beautiful  if  he  were  master  of 
the  laws  of  grammar  and  rhetoric.  But  the  difficulty  in 
the  way  is  that  each  child  is  acquiring  a  style  of  expres- 
sion which  may  be  both  incorrect  and  ugly,  while  he  is 
in  that  immature  and  imitative  period  of  life  which 
makes  the  comprehension  of  such  laws  impossible.  If, 
then,  we  cannot  hope  to  make  his  language  fine  through 
a  mastery  of  the  laws  of  style  at  the  outset,  we  must 
look  for  some  other  means  of  preserving  and  developing 
a  style  throughout  this  period  which  will  not  vitiate  the 
results  of  his  future  labors  in  composition,  when  the 
required  maturity  for  the  comprehension  of  laws  is 


222  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

attained.     This  means  we  have  at  hand  in  the  child's 
splendid  capacity  of  imitation. 

In  making  use  of  this  power,  we  should  have  the 
child  commit  and  recite  many  suitable  poems  from  the 
best  writers.  If  entire  poems  are  not  used,  let  each 
extract  be  large  enough  to  embody  a  well-rounded 
thought.  See  to  it  that  the  child  grasps  the  truth,  and 
then  have  him  employ  the  author's  superior  language  in 
which  to  clothe  it.  At  least  half  a  dozen  such  poems, 
selected  with  especial  reference  to  their  fitness  for  the 
grade  in  which  they  are  used,  should  be  committed  each 
year.  In  time  most  of  these  may  be  forgotten,  or  at 
least  remembered  only  in  fragments,  but  their  style  of 
expression  will  have  passed  into  the  child's  common 
speech  and  then  it  is  his.  Thus  he  should  be  aided  to 
reflect  only  the  best.  This  exercise  in  committing  and 
reciting  should  not  be  confined  to  poetry  ;  it  should  em- 
brace the  forceful,  elegant  prose  as  well. 

In  conjunction  with  such  recitation  of  committed 
parts  should  come  also  wide  and  varied  reading,  as  well 
as  much  productive  work  in  speaking  and  writing.  At 
all  stages  of  the  work  there  should  be  more  of  impres- 
sion from  exalted  sources  than  of  expression  from  the 
child.  But  if  ease  and  grace  of  language  is  to  be  ac- 
quired it  must  be  through  some  expression  in  all  the 
grades.  Neither  will  it  suffice  to  have  only  the  oral  or 
the  written  expression.  The  learner  needs  both.  Other- 
wise it  is  possible  for  him  to  become  quite  fluent  in 
speech,  but  labored  and  unmusical  in  the  slower  act  of 
writing  ;  or  he  may  find  speech  a  forced  and  difficult  art, 
while  writing  done  in  the  quiet  of  his  study  may  be  easy 


LANGUAGE    LESSONS.  223 

and  graceful.  For  harmony  of  development  and  the 
full  force  and  beauty  of  expression  he  needs  smoothness 
and  elegance  in  both  forms  of  expression. 

Set  of  Graduated  Exercises. 

The  work  in  language  should  generally  be  pursued, 
throughout  at  least  the  first  five  or  six  years  of  school 
life,  in  connection  with  the  following  aids ;  and  they 
should  be  used  in  the  order  named:  (i)  objects  from 
nature,  for  work  in  observation  ;  (2)  pictures,  for  both 
descriptive  and  imaginative  work ;  (3)  stories,  for  repro- 
duction, and  later,  for  original  work  ;  (4)  special  language 
forms,  such  as  letters  (both  friendly  and  formal  as  in 
society  or  business),  business  papers,  and  advertisements. 
Formal  essays,  orations,  verses,  etc.,  should  not  be  un- 
dertaken until  the  child  has  a  well-arranged  stock  of 
both  ideas  and  language,  secured  through  such  means 
as  are  indicated  above. 

1.  There  should  be  many  exercises,  both  oral  and 
written,  in  describing  common  objects.     At  first  these 
recitations  should  be  largely  conversational ;  later  they 
may  become   more  formal,  and  the   child  be  required 
to  proceed  without  the  aid  of  the  teacher. 

2.  Inanimate   objects,    animals,  and   plants   may    be 
described  from  memory.     This  may  be  done  subject  to 
leading  questions  from  the  teacher,  or  without  aid. 

3.  Pictures  may  be  used  for  descriptive  work,  and 
later,  as  the  basis  of  a  story.     The  characters  pictured 
may  be  made  to  speak  and  act,  and  the  entire  scene  be 
clothed  with  life  and  energy. 

4.  Stories  related  by  the  teacher  without  the  help  of 


224  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

material  aids,  such  as  objects  or  pictures,  may  be  repro- 
duced by  the  children.  Let  this  reproduction  be  both 
oral  and  written.  To  insure  success  at  this  point,  and 
in  many  other  places  in  primary  teaching,  the  teacher 
should  cultivate  the  power  to  tell  a  story  well.  Do  not 
forget  that  details,  uninteresting  to  the  adult  mind,  are 
of  vital  moment  to  the  child. 

5 .  Stories  may  be  prepared  and  given  by  the  children, 
first  subject  to  brief  guides  and  outlines  furnished  by  the 
teacher,  and  later  without  help. 

6.  Simple  letters,  with  especial  emphasis   upon  the 
recognized  necessary  parts,  should  be  taught.     In  these, 
only  one  difficulty  at  a  time  should  be  encountered.     The 
child  may  tell  about  his  work  in  class,  his  play  at  "school, 
or  any  other  matter  about  which  his  mind  is  filled.     At 
this    time    the  thought   should  not    be   so    difficult    as 
to   bother  him ;    we  are  anxious  now  about  a  form  of 
expression. 

7.  The  various  business  papers  (notes,  drafts,  checks, 
orders,   receipts,   etc.)    should   be  written  as  they  are 
studied  in    the    arithmetic   class  or  elsewhere.     These 
should  be  copied  at  first  from  correct  printed  forms,  but 
later  they  should  be  written  in  their  entirety  without 
reference  to  any  form  as  an  aid. 

8.  Exercises  in  paraphrase,  amplification,  and  conden- 
sation should  frequently  be  given.     All  of  these  test  the 
thought  power,  and  require  a  constant  striving  after  new 
arrangements  of  words.     Much  aid  will  be  given  if  the 
child's  reading  is  directed  to  such  authors  as  are  eminent 
in  any  of  the  above  respects.     For  these  exercises  well- 
chosen  selections  should  be  used,  but  they  should  not  be 


LANGUAGE    LESSONS.  225 

the  masterpieces  of  literature.  This  work  is  done  largely 
for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  the  child's  power  of 
thought  through  the  process  of  interpretation,  and  then 
incidentally  to  serve  as  an  exercise  in  expression.  Lit- 
erary masterpieces  should  generally  be  held  intact,  be- 
cause their  worth  lies,  not  in  the  peculiar  truth  which 
they  express,  but  in  the  striking  fitness  of  the  words 
and  their  arrangement. 

9.  Formal  essays,  narratives,  sketches,  orations,  and 
verses  should  not  be  required  until  the  child  has  a  well- 
stored  mind  and  a  well-ordered  vocabulary  and  style  of 
expression.  Then  he  should  be  made  to  understand 
clearly  that  he  is  to  write  what  he  knoivs,  not  what  will 
necessarily  contribute  something  new  to  the  world's  fund 
of  information.  At  first  each  of  these  forms  of  original 
production  should  be  prepared  subject  to  an  outline, 
given  by  the  teacher  to  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  number 
and  order  of  parts  ;  later,  the  outline  may  be  replaced  by 
general  directions  ;  then,  as  the  highest  in  point  of  diffi- 
culty, the  child  alone  should  produce  a  finished  article, 
including  choice  of  subject,  plan,  discussion,  and  rhe- 
torical finish. 


226  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 


CHAPTER    XV. 
ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

MUCH  confusion  concerning  the  nature  and  purpose  of 
English  grammar  has  filled  the  minds  of  students  of  this 
subject  in  the  past.  Doubtless  this  has  arisen  partly 
from  the  identification  of  the  subject  with  so  many 
others,  in  the  days  of  the  early  grammarians,  when  sub- 
jects were  less  differentiated  than  they  are  now ;  partly 
from  our  bondage  to  the  past,  as  evidenced  by  the 
ancient  definitions  of  grammar,  which  have  been  mod- 
ernized ;  partly  from  the  confusion  of  the  terms  "  art "  and 
"science,"  due  to  the  changing  meanings  as  they  have 
come  down  to  us  from  the  classical  languages ;  and 
partly  from  the  general  willingness  to  accept  the  state- 
ments of  a  book  as  final,  thus  relieving  ourselves  from 
the  burdensome  necessity  of  thinking. 

In  the  first  school  grammar  of  which  we  have  any 
definite  knowledge  (the  Greek  grammar  of  Dionysius 
Thrax,  of  Alexandria,  written  about  80  B.C.  and  trans- 
lated by  Thos.  Davidson),  this  statement  may  be  found : 
"  Grammar  is  an  experimental  knowledge  of  the  usages 
of  language  as  generally  current  among  poets  and  prose 
writers.  It  is  divided  into  six  parts:  (i)  Trained  read- 
ing, with  due  regard  to  prosody  (that  is,  aspiration, 
accentuation,  quantity,  and  sometimes  pauses)  ;  (2)  ex- 
planation according  to  poetical  figures  (literary  criticism) ; 
(3)  ready  statement  of  dialectical  peculiarities  and  allu- 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  22/ 

sions  (philology,  geography,  history,  mythology) ;  (4)  dis- 
covery of  etymologies;  (5)  accurate  account  of  analogies 
(what  we  generally  mean  by  grammar) ;  (6)  criticism 
of  poetical  productions,  which  is  the  noblest  part  of 
the  grammatic  art  (ethics,  politics,  strategy,  etc.,  but  not 
a  discussion  of  the  poetical  merits  of  a  piece)." 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  in  the  ancient  days  the  term 
"grammar"  was  made  to  embrace  a  very  large  propor- 
tion of  the  subjects  which  form  an  entire  modern 
curriculum  of  studies. 

Passing  over  the  long  list  of  writers  of  grammatical 
text-books  during  the  days  of  the  early  church  and  the 
middle  ages  (books  written  in  Latin  down  to  the  time  of 
Lilly's  Grammar,  which  was  written  partly  in  Latin  and 
partly  in  English),  we  note  next  the  first  independent 
"  Grammar  of  the  English  Language,"  written  by  Lind- 
ley  Murray,  a  native  of  Pennsylvania.  In  this  book,  which 
retained  its  popularity  till  the  days  of  Goold  Brown's 
"Grammar  of  English  Grammars,"  we  find  the  following 
definition :  "  English  grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking 
and  writing  the  English  language  with  propriety."  The 
influence  of  Lindley  Murray  has  been  so  marked  that 
his  definition  has  stood  as  the  model  for  practically  all 
of  the  grammarians  of  the  nineteenth  century,  until  we 
reach  those  whose  books  are  now  pushing  to  the  front. 

The  confusion  of  art  and  science,  as  these  terms  are 
applied  to  English  grammar,  is  nowhere  better  shown 
than  in  the  book  which,  next  to  Murray's,  was  the  most 
influential  book  on  English  grammar  in  the  first  half  of 
the  present  century,  —  "  English  Grammar  in  Familiar 
Lectures,'  by  Samuel  Kirkham.  On  one  page  he 


228  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

defines  grammar  as  the  science  of  language,  and  on  the 
next  he  follows  Murray  in  speaking  of  English  grammar 
as  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing  the  English  language 
with  propriety.  Not  only  is  such  confusion  apparent 
throughout  much  of  the  work,  but,  in  the  endeavor  to 
make  an  English  grammar  after  the  model  of  the  Latin, 
he  devotes  much  space  to  the  discussion  of  controverted 
points  which  are  in  reality  quite  unimportant.  On  page 
4 1  of  the  36th  edition  we  find  the  following  :  "  Now  five 
grains  of  common  sense  will  enable  anyone  to  compre- 
hend what  is  meant  by  case.  Its  real  character  is 
extremely  simple  ;  but  in  the  different  grammars  it 
assumes  as  many  meanings  as  Proteus  had  shapes. 
The  most  that  has  been  written  on  it,  however,  is  mere 
verbiage.  What,  then,  is  meant  by  case  ?  In  speaking 
of  a  horse,  for  instance,  we  say  he  is  in  a  good  case  when 
he  is  fat,  and  in  a  bad  case  when  he  is  lean,  and  needs 
more  oats ;  and  in  this  sense  we  apply  the  term  case  to 
denote  the  state  or  condition  of  the  horse.  So  when  we 
place  a  noun  before  a  verb  as  actor  or  subject,  we  say  it 
is  in  the  nominative  case  ;  but  when  it  follows  a  transi- 
tive verb  or  preposition,  we  say  it  has  another  case  ;  that 
is,  it  assumes  a  new  position  or  situation  in  the  sentence  ; 
and  this  we  call  the  objective  case."  Unfortunately  for 
this  simple  (?)  treatment  of  case  with  nouns,  the  author 
has  forgotten  the  subject  of  a  passive  verb,  which  does 
not  represent  an  actor,  and  he  might  have  done  well 
if  he  had  weighed  carefully  the  statement  of  Bishop 
Lowth,  made  as  early  as  1762,  with  regard  to  the  Eng- 
lish language,  —  "Its  substantives  have  but  one  varia 
tion  of  case." 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  22Q 

The  outlook  is  bright  for  correcting  the  disorders  in 
the  study  and  teaching  of  grammar,  which  arise  from 
the  three  causes,  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  above 
eminent,  ancient  authorities.  Their  works  are  being 
superseded  by  later  and  better  ones.  But  the  troubles 
which  arise  from  the  fourth  cause  —  the  thoughtlessness 
of  many  who  teach  the  subject  —  are  more  difficult  to  cor- 
rect. It  seems  that  the  only  possible  alternatives  are, 
either  to  annihilate  all  the  erroneous  writings  on  gram- 
mar, and  then  permit  such  teachers  to  absorb  unques- 
tioningly  all  there  is  left,  or  to  render  the  teachers  more 
critical,  and  to  help  them  more  fully  to  rationalize  their 
work  by  aiding  them  to  master  the  philosophy  of  the 
subjects  they  teach.  The  first  is  a  practical  impossibil- 
ity ;  it  is  to  the  second,  therefore,  that  we  shall  address 
ourselves. 

Purpose. 

Only  two  conflicting  theories  have  been  held  concern- 
ing the  purpose  which  English  grammar  is  meant  to 
fulfill.  One  is  that  it  is  an  art,  meant  to  improve  the 
learner's  use  of  language  ;  the  other  is  that  it  is  a  science, 
meant  to  give  to  the  learner  a  comprehension  of  the 
structure  of  the  language. 

We  have  already  insisted  (Chapter  XIV)  that  the  im- 
provement of  the  child's  use  of  language  belongs  prima- 
rily to  the  language  lesson  ;  that  this  is  brought  about 
by  an  appeal  to  his  power  of  imitation  ;  and  that  these 
habits  should  be  very  largely  fixed  before  the  child  begins 
the  study  of  formal  grammar  (which  should  not  be 
before  the  seventh  or  eighth  school  year).  Now  we 


230  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

insist  that  the  function  of  English  grammar  is  entirely 
different  from  this  ;  that  its  aim  is  to  develop  mental 
power,  and  to  give  one  an  independent  mastery  of  the 
structure  of  a  great  language  system.  If  such  study 
does  incidentally  improve  the  child's  use  of  language, 
well  and  good ;  so  will  a  thoughtful  study  of  history, 
reading,  arithmetic,  etc.,  though  no  one  would  argue 
from  this  that  they  are  taught  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing that  end.  It  is  admitted  that  the  study  of 
grammar  may  do  more  toward  improving  one's  speech 
than  the  study  of  the  other  subjects  named ;  but  even 
this  does  not  alter  the  claim  that  it  should  be  studied 
for  a  different  purpose,  and  that  its  nature  is  such  as  to 
render  it  absolutely  unfitted  to  produce  the  practical 
result  of  language  improvement. 

Upon  this  point  let  us  have  the  authorities  speak.  In 
his  preface  to  "  Essentials  of  English  Grammar,"  William 
Dwight  Whitney  says  :  — 

"  That  the  leading  object  of  the  study  of  English  grammar  is 
to  teach  the  correct  use  of  English  is,  in  my  view,  an  error,  and 
one  which  is  gradually  becoming  removed,  giving  way  to  the 
sounder  opinion  that  grammar  is  the  reflective  study  of  language, 
for  a  variety  of  purposes,  of  which  correctness  in  writing  is  only 
one,  and  a  secondary  or  subordinate  one  —  by  no  means  unimpor- 
tant, but  best  attained  when  sought  indirectly.  It  should  be  a 
pervading  element  in  the  whole  school  and  home  training  of  the 
young  to  make  them  use  their  own  tongue  with  accuracy  and 
force ;  and,  along  with  any  special  drilling  directed  to  this  end 
some  of  the  rudimentary  distinctions  and  rules  of  grammar  are 
conveniently  taught ;  but  that  is  not  the  study  of  grammar,  and  it 
will  not  bear  the  intrusion  of  much  formal  grammar  without  being 
spoiled  for  its  own  ends.  It  is  constant  use  and  practice,  under 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  23! 

never-failing  watch  and  correction,  that  makes  good  writers  and 
speakers  ;  the  application  of  direct  authority  is  the  most  efficient 
corrective.  Grammar  has  its  part  to  contribute,  but  rather  in  the 
higher  than  in  the  lower  stages  of  the  work.  One  must  be  a 
somewhat  reflective  user  of  language  to  amend  even  here  and 
there  a  point  by  grammatical  reasons ;  and  no  one  ever  changed 
from  a  bad  speaker  to  a  good  one  by  applying  the  rules  of  gram- 
mar to  what  he  said.  To  teach  English  grammar  to  an  English 
speaker  is,  as  it  seems  to  me,  to  take  advantage  of  the  fact  that 
the  pupil  knows  the  facts  of  the  language,  in  order  to  turn  his  at- 
tention to  the  underlying  principles  and  relations,  to  the  philosophy 
of  language  as  illustrated  in  his  own  use  of  it,  in  a  more  effective 
manner  than  is  otherwise  possible." 

In  his  preface  to  "  Advanced  Lessons  in  English 
Grammar,"  William  H.  Maxwell  quotes  from  John 
Stuart  Mill  the  following  :  — 

"  Consider  for  a  moment  what  grammar  is.  It  is  the  most 
elementary  part  of  logic.  It  is  the  beginning  of  the  analysis 
of  the  thinking  process.  The  principles  and  rules  of  grammar 
are  the  means  by  which  the  forms  of  language  are  made  to  corre- 
spond with  the  universal  forms  of  thought.  The  distinctions  be- 
tween the  various  parts  of  speech,  between  the  cases  of  nouns, 
the  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs,  the  functions  of  participles,  are 
distinctions  in  thought,  not  merely  in  words.  Single  nouns  and 
verbs  express  objects  and  events,  many  of  which  can  be  cognized 
by  the  senses  ;  but  the  modes  of  putting  nouns  and  verbs  together, 
express  the  relations  of  objects  and  events,  which  can  be  cognized 
only  by  the  intellect  (or  thought) ;  and  each  different  mode  corre- 
sponds to  a  different  relation.  The  structure  of  every  sentence  is 
a  lesson  in  logic." 

On  pages  238-240  of  his  "Lectures  on  Teaching" 
Mr.  J.  G.  Fitch  writes;  — 


232  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

"  No  doubt  there  is  a  sense,  and  a  very  true  sense,  in  which  all 
careful  investigation  into  the  structure  of  words  and  their  relations 
gives  precision  to  speech.  But  this  is  an  indirect  process.  The 
direct  operation  and  use  of  grammar  rules  in  improving  our  speech 
and  making  it  correct,  can  hardly  be«said  to  exist  at  all.  ...  If 
therefore,  we  have  in  view  mainly  the  practical  art  of  using  the 
language  in  speech  or  writing  with  good  taste  and  correctness, 
this  particular  result  is  probably  best  to  be  attained  by  talking  to 
the  pupil,  by  taking  care  he  hears  little  but  good  English,  by  cor- 
recting him  when  he  is  wrong,  by  making  him  read  the  best 
authors,  by  practising  him  much  in  writing,  and  when  he  makes  a 
mistake,  by  requiring  him  to  write  the  sentence  again  without 
one.  It  will  certainly  not  be  attained  by  setting  him  to  learn 
Murray's,  or  indeed  any  other  grammar.  ...  If,  however,  that 
purpose  (the  practical)  is  contemplated  as  the  first  which  is  to  be 
served  in  teaching  (grammar),  we  not  only  shall  not  attain  it,  but 
we  shall  fail  altogether  to  achieve  the  much  higher  ends  which 
may  be  reached  by  the  teaching  of  grammar  as  a  science." 

It  seems  to  be  evident,  then,  from  the  writings  of  such 
eminent  authorities  as  those  given  above,  that  the  pur- 
pose of  studying  English  grammar  is,  not  the  develop- 
ment of  habits,  as  in  the  language  lesson  and  later  in 
formal  composition,  but  the  disciplining  of  the  powers  of 
thought ;  not  training  to  the  right  use  of  the  English 
language,  but  the  comprehension  of  the  structure  of  the 
language. 

If  this  is  a  correct  view,  then  it  follows  that  in  gram- 
mar nothing  is  to  be  accepted  on  the  mere  authority  of 
the  teacher  or  from  the  models  of  writers  ;  the  appeal 
must  not  be  made  to  the  child's  power  of  imitation,  but 
in  our  teaching  we  must  address  ourselves  to  the  child's 
understanding.  Whatever  is  not  comprehended  must 
not  be  accepted  as  final.  The  memory  should  not  be 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  233 

taxed  to  hold  expressions  from  either  the  teacher  or  the 
text-book,  until  the  truth  of  such  expressions  has  been 
grasped  by  the  thought.  If  the  study  of  grammar  is  an 
exercise  in  elementary  logic,  then  the  methods  fitted  to 
the  logic  class  should  characterize  our  teaching  of  it. 
Opinions  may  be  entertained  and  questioned,  discussions 
engaged  in,  relations  of  parts  to  each  other  sought  out, 
—  in  a  word,  every  proper  thing  may  be  done  which  will 
aid  in  revealing  to  the  child  the  general  philosophy 
involved  in  the  construction  of  the  language.  But  this 
is  not  the  place  to  present  to  the  child  arbitrary  models 
for  practice,  nor  to  exercise  him  in  the  employment  of 
recognized  forms  of  good  usage  to  the  end  that  they  may 
become  habitual.  This  belongs  no  more  to  the  grammar 
class  than  it  does  to  every  school  exercise  in  which  lan- 
guage is  used.  Speaking  of  this  matter,  Prof.  John 
Mulligan  says,  in  the  preface  to  his  "  Exposition  of  the 
Grammatical  Structure  of  the  English  Language, "  that 

"  the  importance  of  a  thorough  reformation  of  the  method  of 
teaching  grammar  to  the  general  intellectual  progress  of  the  age, 
can  scarcely  be  overestimated.  We  may  form  some  notion  of 
this  importance  if  we  reflect  that  this  science  not  only  lays  (or, 
at  least,  should  lay)  the  foundation  of  all  sound  logic  and  all  true 
eloquence  —  has  the  closest  connection  with  correct  thinking  as 
well  as  with  the  correct  transmission  of  the  products  of  thought 
from  mind  to  mind  —  but  serves  as  a  natural  and  indispensable 
introduction  to  our  courses  of  intellectual  training,  and  the  first 
step  in  a  philosophical  education." 

Method. 

If  the  view  expressed  above  respecting  the  nature 
and  function  of  English  grammar  is  correct,  then  it  fol- 


234  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

lows  that  the  things  for  us  to  study  are  thought  relations 
and  the  consequent  relations  of  the  words  which  are 
used  to  express  the  thought.  If  so  much  is  conceded, 
then  it  follows  further  that  the  only  language  element 
which  expresses  a  thought  —  the  sentence  —  must  be 
taken  as  the  unit  of  study.  Isolated  words  cannot  be 
treated  grammatically,  it  matters  not  whether  we  are 
considering  the  parsing  of  each  word  individually  (con- 
sidering the  words  as  parts  of  speecJi)  or  the  analysis  of 
an  entire  sentence  (considering  the  words  as  the  logical 
elements  of  the  sentence].  Any  such  matter  as  "  list  of 
prepositions,"  "  list  of  irregular  verbs,"  etc.,  must  be 
ruled  out  as  being  irrational.  Every  word  in  the  English 
language  may,  if  used  properly,  serve  as  a  substantive  ; 
that  is,  have  the  force  of  a  noun.  It  may  be  well  to 
call  attention  to  the  lists  of  words  which  are  generally 
used  as  prepositions,  or  as  some  other  part  of  speech, 
but  they  should  not  be  called  prepositions  until  they  be- 
come such  by  being  used  in  a  certain  manner  in  a  sen- 
tence. Finally,  if  the  position  taken  in  the  chapter  on 
The  Actual  Realities  in  School  Subjects  is  tenable,  then 
we  must  conclude  that  the  study  of  English  grammar 
should  be  based  upon  language  itself  and  not  upon  a  set 
of  definitions  about  the  language.  Definitions  must  be 
studied,  but  it  should  be  only  as  a  means  of  crystallizing 
what  has  been  found  in  studying  the  language  which 
contains  examples  of  the  items  to  be  defined.  In  his 
"  Lectures  on  Language  and  Linguistic  Method  in  the 
Schools  "  (p.  73),  Professor  Laurie  says  :  — 

"  To  be  of  any  utility,  either  as  a  discipline,  or  as  training,  or 
as  knowledge,  grammar  and  rhetoric  have  to  be  studied  through 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  235 

examples.  Grammar  has  to  be  studied  in  and  through  sentences, 
and  to  be  extracted  from  sentences  by  the  pupil,  if  it  is  to  be  really 
taught ;  and  so  also  rhetoric  has  to  be  studied  in  and  through  the 
masterpieces  of  literature,  and  extracted  from  them,  if  it  is  to  be 
really  taught." 

Our  first  formal  study  of  English  grammar  must  con- 
sist, then,  in  determining  the  nature  of  the  groups  of 
words  which  form  sentences  ;  this  settled,  the  essential 
parts  of  the  sentence  should  claim  attention ;  next,  the 
individual  words  which  comprise  these,  parts  should  be 
considered  as  parts  of  speech.  The  detailed  study  of 
the  logical  value  of  each  word  in  the  sentence  should  be 
-postponed  until  the  more  critical  work  of  exhaustive 
analysis  is  begun. 

Many  writers  advise  that  we  begin  the  work  with 
words,  pointing  out  through  their  meanings  the  various 
parts  of  speech,  and  then  combine  these  to  form  the 
sentence.  They  base  this  recommendation  upon  the 
claims  (i)  that  the  child  begins  to  speak  by  using  indi- 
vidual words,  and  that  later  he  employs  full  sentences  ; 
(2)  that  it  is  procedure  from  the  particular  to  the 
general.  Each  of  these  arguments  is  denied  any  weight 
in  this  connection,  the  first  because  it  is  valueless,  and 
the  second  because  it  is  untrue. 

We  may  grant  that  the  child,  in  learning  to  speak, 
begins  by  using  a  word  to  express  a  full  thought ;  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  when  he  learns  to  speak  he  is 
an  infant,  and  also  that  when  he  uses  a  word  to  express 
a  full  thought  he  is  employing  an  imperfect  instrument. 
When  we  begin  to  teach  grammar  we  have  the  child  in 
a  more  developed  state, — thought  power  is  developed, 


236  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

practical  language,  both  in  speech  and  writing,  is  mastered, 
and  a  large  fund  of  varied  ideas  is  possessed. 

It  seems  entirely  without  point  then  to  argue  that, 
because  an  infant  proceeded  in  a  certain  manner  in  his 
development,  we  should  follow  the  same  order  of  proce- 
dure with  a  being  as  much  developed  as  the  average 
child  is  when  it  is  right  for  him  to  begin  to  study  gram- 
mar. As  well  might  we  argue  that  each  individual, 
founding  a  home  for  himself  in  this  present  age,  should 
model  it  after  the  homes  of  the  barbarous  nations  of 
antiquity  (the  infants  of  the  race),  and  gradually  evolve 
from  that  a  modern  home  suited  to  his  present  advance- 
ment, thus  ignoring  all  that  he  has  inherited  from  the 
progress  of  the  race. 

Neither  is  there  any  sufficient  reason  for  using  an  im- 
perfect instrument  of  expression  as  the  basis  of  our  study 
of  grammar  when  we  have  a  perfect  one  at  hand.  It 
is  thought  that  we  are  to  analyze,  and  this  thought  can 
be  interpreted  only  through  its  expression.  If  we  take 
an  imperfect  expression,  the  thought  which  we  are  called 
upon  to  analyze  must  be  correspondingly  imperfect, 
unless  perchance  we  may  complete  it  by  a  happy  guess. 
Attention  may  be  directed  to  the  words  in  their  isolation, 
their  history  may  be  studied,  and,  by  supplying  in  thought 
what  is  not  brought  forth  in  expression  (the  meaning), 
we  may  even  classify  words  under  the  headings  known 
as  parts  of  speech.  But  it  is  only  when  words  are  in 
relation  to  each  other  that  they  constitute  a  language ; 
and,  if  we  are  to  study  the  structure  of  the  language, 
we  must  have  the  language  before  us  for  study.  Isolated 
words  are  the  materials  out  of  which  a  language  may 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  23 / 

be  made,  but  they  do  not  furnish  the  finished  structure. 

The  second  reason  for  the  synthetic  mode  of  proce- 
dure in  grammar  is  regarded  as  baseless  because  it  is 
untrue.  A  sentence  is  not  a  generalization  developed 
out  of  a  study  of  words.  It  is  only  a  larger  individual 
thing  made  up  of  pieces  which  are  the  words.  A  word 
that  we  may  study  is  a  single  thing  ;  likewise  a  sentence 
that  we  may  study  is  a  single  thing.  If  we  study  a 
word,  not  in  itself,  but  as  a  type  of  its  class,  we  may 
reach  a  generalized  truth,  but  it  will  be  about  words  ; 
likewise,  if  we  study  a  sentence,  not  in  itself,  but  as  a 
type  of  its  kind,  we  may  reach  a  generalization,  but  it 
will  be  about  sentences.  We  do  not  proceed  from  the 
particular  to  the  general  when  we  study  words  first  and 
sentences  afterwards.  We  proceed  only  to  more  complex 
particulars ;  each  one  is  this  sentence  or  that  sentence, 
but  not  sentence  in  general.  Neither  is  a  study  of  the 
sentence  a  study  respecting  words  in  general,  nor  yet  of 
any  class  of  words.  It  is  merely  certain  individual  words 
(pieces)  arid  their  relations  to  each  other. 

Analysis.  The  charge  is  frequently  made  by  teachers 
of  higher  English  that  pupils  can  often  diagram  a  sen- 
tence correctly  but  they  cannot  tell  what  it  means.  If 
this  is  so,  then  it  is  highly  probable  that,  in  the  earlier 
study  of  English,  pupils  have  "gone  through  "  a  course 
in  oral  grammatical  analysis  which  has  been  made  purely 
formal  and  mechanical,  or  else  they  have  neglected  even 
the  form  of  oral  analysis  and  have  devoted  their  strength 
to  guessing  how  to  arrange  lines  in  a  symmetrical  form 
and  to  write  the  words  of  a  sentence  upon  them  —  per- 
functory diagramming. 


238  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

It  is  conceded  that  the  usual  form  of  grammatical 
analysis,  if  it  is  done  thoughtfully,  has  great  value  for 
mental  discipline  as  well  as  for  revealing  the  significance 
of  language.  It  is  also  conceded  that  the  written  dia- 
gram, so  much  abused  in  many  sections,  may  have  great 
value  if  used  with  discretion.  It  must  not  be  regarded 
as  a  substitute  for  analysis,  as  many  pupils  view  it,  but 
as  &form  of  analysis.  It  is  simply  a  scheme  of  short- 
hand for  the  purpose  of  picturing  the  relations  of  the 
parts  of  a  thought,  and  for  indicating  in  a  few  min- 
utes what  it  would  take  hours  to  write  in  the  language 
usually  employed  in  oral  analysis.  When  a  pupil  de- 
clares that  he  can  diagram  a  sentence  but  that  he  can- 
not analyze  it,  the  mistake  lies  in  his  incorrect  use  of 
the  word,  analyze.  To  him  the  term  "  analyze  "  means  to 
say,  as  he  has  heard  others  say,  all  that  he  knows  about 
the  relations  of  the  several  words  of  a  sentence.  This 
he  is  unable  to  do,  because  he  does  not  remember  what 
he  thinks  is  the  necessary  order  in  which  others  have 
said  the  different  things,  and  because  he  has  forgotten 
some  of  the  technical  terms  which  they  use.  But,  if  he 
can  think  the  relations  of  the  several  parts,  so  as  to 
make  his  diagramming  anything  but  happy  guessing,  he 
thereby  does  the  analyzing,  and  the  diagram  is  only  the 
written  form  of  such  analysis. 

Hence  no  objection  will  be  raised  in  these  pages 
against  the  usual  forms  of  grammatical  analysis  (includ- 
ing diagramming),  and  they  are  even  recommended.  Not 
only  so,  but  the  very  earliest  grammatical  treatment  of 
the  sentence  should  be  a  process  of  analysis  in  which  the 
larger  elements  (subject  and  predicate)  are  pointed  out, 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  239 

and  this  should  be  followed  by  a  study  of  the  connect- 
ing and  modifying  elements.  When  these  parts  are 
learned  in  their  relation  to  each  other,  the  more  exhaus- 
tive study  of  individual  words  (parsing)  should  be  begun. 
But  while  these  are  recommended,  they  will  not  be  fur- 
ther discussed  here,  because  every  teacher  of  grammar 
is  expected  to  know  them,  or  can  learn  them  from  text- 
books on  the  subject. 

It  is  to  another  form  of  analysis,  the  analysis  of 
meaning  rather  than  of  expression,  that  attention  will 
be  directed  here.  The  aim  is  to  direct  the  learner's 
mind  to  ideas  rather  than  to  terms,  and  for  this  purpose 
the  teacher  should  use  language  which  will  keep  his 
attention  upon  the  thought,  and  not  merely  upon  its 
expression.  Just  as  it  is  more  rational  for  the  student 
of  grammar  to  analyze  language  itself,  and  thus  reach 
the  definitions  about  language,  rather  than  to  study  the 
definitions  first  and  then  test  them  in  language ;  so  it 
is  best,  for  his  mastery  of  the  subject  and  for  his  men- 
tal discipline,  to  have  his  attention  directed  first  to  the 
significance,  and  afterwards  to  the  sign,  in  language. 

i.  Analysis  of  meaning  in  isolated  sentences.  If  we 
take  the  sentence,  "  The  bright  flowers  of  the  morning- 
glory  climbed  over  the  garden  wall,"  we  may  illustrate 
this  method  of  analysis  by  the  use  of  the  following 
questions : 

"  What  is  here  talked  about  ?  "  "  The  bright  flowers 
of  the  morning-glory." 

"  What  is  said  concerning  them  ? "  "  They  climbed 
over  the  garden  wall." 

Now,  since  this  subject  idea  (the  idea  that  is  being 


24O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

thought  or  talked  about)  is  complex,  it  may  be  further 
analyzed. 

"  In  a  single  word  tell  what  is  talked  about." 
"Flowers."  "What  kind  of  flowers?"  "The  bright 
ones."  "All  bright  ones?"  "No,  only  those  of  the 
morning-glory." 

Similarly  we  may  treat  the  predicate  idea.  "  What  is 
it  that  these  flowers  did  ?  "  "  Climbed."  "  Where  did 
they  climb  ?  "  "  Over  the  garden  wall." 

By  such  a  method  of  analysis  teachers  may  not  be 
able  to  get  the  class  to  "dispose  of  "  many  sentences  at 
a  recitation,  but  they  cannot  easily  fail  to  get  them  to 
understand  the  meanings  of  sentences  better  than  they 
usually  do.  Besides,  since  this  process  calls  the  child's 
attention  to  the  thought  itself  and  to  the  relations  of  the 
several  parts  of  the  thought  to  each  other,  it  cannot  well 
help  increasing  his  reasoning  power. 

If  suitable  sentences  are  selected,  it  may  readily  be 
shown  that  all  our  thoughts  (the  meanings  which  are 
expressed  by  declarative  sentences)  are  analyzable  into 
the  following  ideas  :  — 

Subject  ideas,  predicate  ideas,  modifying  ideas,  con- 
necting ideas. 

When  the  learner  is  directed,  in  his  study,  to  the 
analysis  of  the  language  rather  than  of  the  meaning 
alone  which  is  presented  to  him,  he  will  find  that  to 
these  different  ideas  there  corresponds  the  usual  gram- 
matical terms.  For  subject  idea  there  will  be  substi- 
tuted the  subject  words  of  the  sentence,  or  simply  "the 
subject."  For  predicate  idea  there  will  be  substituted 
"the  predicate."  This  will  be  found  at  times  to  consist 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  24  I 

of  a  verb  only ;  at  other  times  it  will  be  seen  to  be  com- 
plex, composed  of  either  a  predicate  adjective  or  a 
predicate  noun  (either  one  or  many  words),  together 
with  a  copula  (usually  some  form  of  the  verb  "  be  "  which 
simply  couples  together  two  words  in  the  relation  of  a 
subject  and  a  predicate).  Modifying  ideas  will  be  found 
to  correspond  to  the  words  which  modify  either  the  sub- 
ject, the  predicate,  or  some  other  modifier,  and  are  called 
"  modifiers."  Connecting  ideas  will  give  way  to  some  one 
of  the  terms,  "  connective,"  "  relation  word,"  or  "  copula." 

It  is  evident  that  any  method  of  grammatical  analy- 
sis which  is  rationally  done  must  take  into  account 
these  thought  elements,  for  the  words  get  their  gram- 
matical relations  to  each  other  only  by  virtue  of  their 
related  meanings.  But  it  seems  equally  true  that  the 
stereotyped  processes,  observable  in  many  grammar 
classes,  do  nothing  to  require  the  directing  of  the 
learner's  thought  to  anything  beyond  words.  The  merit 
that  is  claimed  for  the  above  mode  of  procedure  lies  in 
the  fact  that  it  makes  the  language  itself,  with  its  signifi- 
cance, the  subject  of  study,  for  it  may  precede  the 
learning  of  any  formal  definitions  from  a  text-book 
in  grammar ;  or,  if  it  is  done  after  the  definitions  are 
known,  it  still  directs  the  learner's  thought  to  the 
reality  in  grammar  and  away  from  the  text-book  state- 
ments about  such  reality. 

If  thorough  drill  is  given  in  such  a  form  of  analysis, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  learner  cannot  turn  to  the 
usual  processes  and  terms  of  grammatical  analysis  with- 
out having  them  become  significant  at  once  and  for  all 
time.  When  such  emphasis  as  this  is  not  placed  upon 


242  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

sentence  meanings,  we  run  the  same  risk  of  having  the 
learner's  grammatical  analysis  become  mechanical  and 
devoid  of  thought  that  we  do  in  the  process  of 
committing  and  reciting  the  multiplication  table  when 
its  meaning  has  not  first  been  presented.  Whoever  is 
taught  to  commit  tables  of  results,  formulas,  or  defini- 
tions in  the  old  memoriter  fashion,  does  it  at  the  expense 
of  his  mental  development  ;  while,  to  the  one  who  has 
had  the  significance  of  these  things  first  presented,  the 
committing  of  the  excellent  form  in  which  they  are  ex- 
pressed becomes  both  an  intelligent  act  and  a  great  aid. 
2.  Comparative  study  of  related  sentences.  If  the 
study  of  grammar  is  to  fulfill  its  mission  as  a  means  of 
giving  the  learner  a  mastery  of  the  structure  of  lan- 
guage, and  of  equipping  him  to  interpret  language,  then 
there  is  one  other  form  of  study  to  which  attention  must 
be  given.  Thought  as  expressed  in  language  is  usually 
continuous.  The  sentences  employed  express  related 
truths.  The  meaning  of  the  sentence  may  be  grasped, 
while  the  relation  of  its  meaning  to  that  of  another  may 
not  be  at  all  understood.  Provision  should  therefore  be 
made  to  educate  children  in  this  most  important  part  of 
the  mastery  of  language,  and  the  grammar  class  should 
afford  an  especial  opportunity  for  such  training.  Even 
when  the  analysis  of  sentences  follows  the  plan  usually 
observed  by  teachers,  the  sentences  should  be  related 
ones.  In  "How  to  Parse,"  Rev.  Edwin  A.  Abbott 
says  :  — 

"  A  pupil  cannot  be  regarded  as  thoroughly  tested  in  his  knowl- 
edge of  grammatical  rules  till  he  has  applied  them  to  connected 
narrative.  As  long  as  he  is  tested  in  nothing  but  short  sentences, 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  243 

you  can  never  feel  sure  that  his  accuracy  is  not  merely  mechan- 
ical." 

But  in  addition  to  this,  the  value  of  comparative  study 
will  be  further  enhanced  by  observing  the  recommen- 
dations which  follow. 

The  teacher  who  has  even  a  slight  acquaintance  with 
the  elements  of  deductive  logic,  will  understand  the  work 
that  is  here  recommended.  For  those  who  do  not  pos- 
sess such  knowledge,  a  brief  treatment  with  a  few  illus- 
trations will  reveal  what  is  intended.  It  has  already 
been  pointed  out  (p.  58)  that  all  the  regular  forms  of 
declarative  sentences  are  reducible  to  four  classes,  illus- 
trated by  the  following  sentences,  and  called  by  the 
names  of  the  letters  which  accompany  them  :  — 

(A)  All  knowledge  is  useful. 

(E)  No  knowledge  is  useful. 

(/)  Some  knowledge  is  useful. 

(O)  Some  knowledge  is  not  useful. 

The  distinctive  character  of  these  sentences  does  not 
lie  in  the  information  which  they  convey,  but  in  the  form 
of  the  sentence.  The  words  in  them  which  are  espe- 
cially important  for  the  purpose  of  a  comparative  study 
are  :  — 

(A)    All is  (or,  are)  .  .  . 

(E)    No  (none)    .  is  (or,  are)  .  .  . 

(/)     Some  ....  is  (or,  are)  .   .  . 

(O)    Some ....  is  not  (or,  are  not)  .  .  . 

Examination  will  reveal  the  fact  that  in  A  and  E  the 
term  which  forms  the  subject  (in  this  case,  knowledge) 


244  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

is  considered  in  its  entirety,  or  is  distributed.  The 
whole  of  the  subject  idea  is  spoken  of  in  the  proposi- 
tions. In  /  and  O,  the  term  which  forms  the  subject  is 
considered  only  in  part.  In  the  above  sentences,  this 
fact  is  revealed  by  the  use  of  the  word  "  some."  Any 
other  word  which  signifies  "  less  than  all,"  will  serve  as 
well  as  the  word  "some."  Frequently  there  will  be  no 
modifying  word  in  the  subject  of  the  sentence  by  means 
of  which  the  learner  can  tell  whether  the  meaning  is 
"some"  or  "all"  of  the  subject,  as,  "The  Chinese  are 
industrious."  Under  such  conditions  it  is  necessary  to 
decide  from  the  meaning  alone,  whether  the  subject  is 
distributed  or  undistributed. 

In  the  four  typical  sentences  (A,  E,  7,  (9),  the  ones 
which  distribute  their  subjects  (A  and  E)  are  called  uni- 
versal propositions.  The  ones  which  do  not  distribute 
their  subjects  (/  and  O)  are  called  particular  propositions : 

Examining  the  predicates  of  the  four  propositions,  we 
find  that  two  of  them  (A  and  /)  are  affirmative  and  two 
(E  and  O)  are  negative. 

When  the  assertion  is  made  that  all  knowledge  is  use- 
ful, there  is  clearly  nothing  in  that  to  exclude  other 
things  from  being  useful  at  the  same  time.  So  also 
with  the  other  affirmative  proposition,  some  knowledge 
is  useful.  In  neither  case  do  we  refer  to  all  that  is 
included  in  the  meaning  of  the  predicate  term.  This 
being  so,  the  predicates  of  affirmative  propositions  (A 
and  /)  are  said  to  be  undistributed.  But  in  the  state- 
ment, No  knowledge  is  useful,  I  find  that,  if  examination 
is  made  of  the  entire  circle  of  useful  things,  knowledge 
will  nowhere  be  found  in  it.  Since  examination  must 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


245 


thus  be  made  of  the  entire  meaning  of  the  term  before 
we  can  assert  that  no  knowledge  is  useful,  we  see  that 
the  predicate  of  E  is  distributed.  Similarly  the  subject 
term  of  O  (" knowledge,"  as  limited  by  "some  "  —some 
knowledge)  is  excluded  from  the  entire  predicate,  useful. 
In  this  case  also  the  predicate  is  said  to  be  distributed, 
since  it  must  be  examined  in  its  entirety  in  order  to 
establish  the  claim  that  "some  knowledge"  is  not  in- 
cluded in  any  part  of  "  useful  (things)." 

Summing  up  our  examination  of  both  the  subjects  and 
the  predicates  of  the  four  propositions,  we  may  state  the 
results  in  the  following  form  :  — 


PROPOSITIONS. 

LETTER 
NAME. 

KIND. 

SUBJECT. 

PREDICATE. 

A. 
E. 

I. 

O. 

Universal  Affirmative. 
Universal  Negative. 
Particular  Affirmative. 
Particular  Negative. 

Distributed. 
Distributed. 
Undistributed. 
Undistributed. 

Undistributed. 
Distributed. 
Undistributed. 
Distributed. 

This  brief  introduction  to  the  nature  of  the  pure  forms 
of  logical  propositions  is  made  in  order  that  we  may 
reveal  to  the  learner  one  of  the  problems  for  him  to 
solve  in  this  comparative  study  of  sentences.  It  is  very 
evident  that  when  I  make  a  truthful  assertion  respecting 
all  of  a  given  class  (when  the  individuals  are  not  con- 
sidered in  their  collective  capacity),  my  statement  is  also 
true  of  some  (any  number  less  than  all)  of  that  class ;  on 
the  other  hand,  if  I  make  a  true  statement  respecting 
a  part  of  a  class,  such  assertion  may  or  may  not  be  true, 
if  made  of  the  entire  class.  This  then  is  our  problem  : 


246  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

If  A  is  true,  what  of  the  truth  of  the  other  three 
(E,I,  0)1 

If  E  is  true,  what  of  the  truth  of  the  other  three 
(A,  /,  O)  ? 

If  7  is  true,  what  of  the  truth  of  the  other  three 
(A,  E,  O)  ? 

If  O  is  true,  what  of  the  truth  of  the  other  three 
(A,  E,  I)  ? 

If  A  is  false,  what  of  the  truth  of  the  other  three 

(E,  /,  0)1 

If  E  is  false,  what  of  the  truth  of  the  other  three 
(A,  /,  O)  ? 

If  /  is  false,  what  of  the  truth  of  the  other  three 
(A,E,  0)1 

If  O  is  false,  what  of  the  truth  of  the  other  three 
(A,  E,  I)  ? 

These  relations  should  be  illustrated  and  tested  in 
many  different  sentences  (always  bearing  in  mind  that 
the  sentences  to  be  compared  must  have  in  them  the 
same  subject  terms  and  also  the  same  predicate  terms)  ; 
they  should  then  be  impressed  by  frequent  repetition, 
so  that  the  learner  can  speak  of  the  relative  truths  of 
A,  E,  I,  and  O  without  the  necessity  of  thinking  of  them 
by  aid  of  concrete  sentences.  Such  an  exercise  will 
have  almost  unlimited  value  as  an  aid  to  the  interpreta- 
tion of  connected  discourse. 

Another  important  line  of  comparative  study  of  sen- 
tences is  the  following  :  — 

Given  the  sentence,  "  All  men  are  mortal." 

If  this  is  true,  it  follows  of  necessity  that  — 

No  men  are  immortal ;  and  that  — 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Some  mortals  are  men. 
Given  — 

No  men  are  perfect.     (E) 

Some  men  are  wise.     (I) 

Some  men  are  not  wise.     (O) 

Tell  what  truths  follow  by  immediate  inference  from 
each  of  these. 

Still  another  exercise,"  which  the  teacher  can  vary  at 
pleasure  by  using  other  thoughts  as  the  base,  will  be 
given. 

Take  the  sentences  — 

(1)  All  wise  men  are  just  men. 

(2)  No  just  men  are  unwise. 

(3)  All  unjust  men  are  wise. 

(4)  All  just  men  are  wise. 

(5)  No  wise  men  are  unjust. 

(6)  No  unwise  men  are  just. 

(7)  No  unwise  men  are  unjust. 

(8)  No  just  men  are  wise. 

(9)  Some  wise  men  are  just. 
(10)  Some  unwise  men  are  just, 
(n)  Some  unwise  men  are  unjust. 

(12)  Some  wise  men  are  unjust. 

(13)  No  wise  men  are  just. 

(14)  Some  just  men  are  unwise. 

(15)  Some  just  men  are  wise. 

(16)  All  wise  men  are  unjust. 

(17)  All  unwise  men  are  unjust. 

(18)  All  unwise  men  are  just. 

(19)  All  just  men  are  unwise. 

(20)  All  unjust  men  are  unwise,  etc. 


248  SYSTEMATIC'  METHODOLOGY. 

Tell- 

(a)  The  ones  that  can  be  inferred  from  (i). 

(b)  The  ones  from  which  (i)  can  be  inferred. 

(c)  The  ones  that  contradict  (i). 

(d)  The  ones  that  do  not  contradict  (i),  but  which 
cannot  be  inferred  from  (i). 

Besides  the  introduction  of  entirely  different  thoughts, 
we  may  take  any  one  of  the  above  sentences  as  the  base 
of  comparison,  and  may  thus  give  an  almost  endless 
range  to  the  work. 

Finally,  we  may  call  attention  to  some  of  the  irreg- 
ularities and  errors  that  have  crept  into  our  thought  and 
expression. 

The  sentence  "All  men  are  not  happy,"  which  is  a 
very  common  form  of  expression,  is  often  interpreted  to 
mean  "All  men  are  unhappy,"  whereas  it  really  means 
"Not  all  men  are  happy,"  or,  "Some  men  are  not 
happy  "(O). 

In  the  sentence  "  Few  men  are  both  rich  and  gen- 
erous," we  have  an  illustration  of  another  form  of  ex- 
pression that  is  subject  to  ambiguity.  It  seems,  from  its 
form,  to  be  (I),  —  "A  few  men,"  etc.;  but  what  is 
intended  is  to  impress  the  belief  that  "most  men  are 
not  both  rich  and  generous  "  (O). 

Even  the  word  "some"  is  liable  to  misinterpretation. 
If  we  assert  that  "some  men  are  happy,"  there  are 
those  who  will  instantly  import  into  it  two  other  ideas, 
and  insist  that  our  sentence  gave  warrant  for  both. 
They  declare  that  we  imply  that  "some  men  are  not 
happy,"  and  also  that  we  deny  that  "  all  men  are  happy." 
They  read  it  as  some,  but  not  all,  It  means  some  at  least. 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  249 

it  may  be  all.  About  those  not  included  in  the  word 
some,  we  make  no  assertion  whatever,  because  we  do 
not  presume  to  know. 

All  of  this  emphasizes  the  thought  that  we  must  con- 
stantly interpret  sentences  by  reference  to  their  context 
—  a  matter  upon  which  it  is  impossible  to  place  too 
strong  emphasis. 

Parsing.  It  is  not  the  ancient  stereotyped  method 
of  parsing  which  is  here  recommended,  but  rather  a 
method  which  follows  naturally  from  the  use  we  have 
thus  far  made  of  the  sentence,  and  which  simply 
extends  the  process  of  analysis  which  we  have  given  to 
the  sentence  on  down  to  the  individual  words  that  are  in 
sentences.  To  parse  a  word  is  thus  to  give  a  complete 
account  of  it,  as  it  stands  in  the  sentence.  The  analy- 
sis of  a  sentence  consists  simply  in  setting  forth  the 
offices  of  the  several  words  which  enter  into  its  construc- 
tion ;  parsing  includes  this  item  of  construction  (or 
office)  among  the  things  to  which  attention  is  directed. 

In  order,  therefore,  that  parsing  may  not  cause  iis  to 
throw  aside  all  the  valuable  product  gained  by  analysis, 
we  must  see  to  it  that  the  learner  does  not  regard  pars- 
ing as  a  totally  new  process  performed  upon  words.  A 
common  error  consists  in  regarding  analysis  as  a  method 
of  disposing  of  sentences,  and  parsing  as  a  method  of 
disposing  of  words.  From  this  it  is  an  easy  step  to  the 
next  error  of  regarding  parsing  as  a  process  performed 
upon  isolated  words.  In  truth  it  is  simply  an  extension 
of  the  process  of  analysis  into  further  details  of  the 
sentence ;  namely,  the  elements  of  the  words  which 
form  the  sentence. 


250  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

To  accomplish  all  that  is  here  implied,  and  to  prevent 
the  parsing  exercises  from  becoming  a  thoughtless  round 
of  guesses  and  blunders,  the  following  directions  are 
given  :  — 

1.  In  a  sentence  to  be  parsed,  the  first  thing  to  do  is 
to  point  out  the  bare  subject  and  the  bare  predicate. 
Then  let  these  words,  the  subject  first  and  the  predi- 
cate afterwards,  be  parsed. 

2.  In  disposing  of  the  rest  of  the  words  in  the  com- 
plete subject  (and  afterwards  in  the  complete  predicate), 
"  A  word  qualified  by  any  other  is  to  be  parsed  before 
that  other."     This   is  particularly   valuable  because  it 
emphasizes,  through  the  order  of  procedure,  the  relations 
of  the  thought  elements  in  the  sentence. 

Illustration  —  My  brother's  friend  laid  the  package  in 
William's  room.  In  this  sentence  the  words  should  be 
parsed  in  the  following  order :"  friend,  brother's,  my, 
laid,  package,  the,  room,  William's,  in.  By  so  doing  the 
parsing  exercise  virtually  keeps  up  all  that  was  valuable 
in  the  earlier  analysis. 

3.  Having   determined    the  best   order  in   which    to 
parse  the  words  of  a  sentence,  so  that  we  may  get  from 
the  exercise  the  most  thorough  mastery  of  the  thought 
relations,  we  must  consider  next  the  treatment  to  be 
given   the  individual  words.     At  the  outset  each  word 
should  be  parsed  fully  ;  that  is,  have  every  detail  given 
about  the  word,  with  the  reason  for  everything  that  is  given. 

Illustration  —  Friend  (taken  from  the  sentence  above) 
is  a  noun  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  person  ;  a  common 
noun  because  it  applies  to  each  of  the  individuals  of  a 
class ;  it  is  not  a  gender  noun  because  it  does  not  imply 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  2$  I 

a  distinction  of  sex ;  it  is  a  simple  noun  because  it  can- 
not be  resolved  into  any  English  elements ;  singular 
number  because  it  means  only  one  of  its  class  (the  in- 
flection is  :  friend,  friend's,  friends,  friends') ;  it  is  in  the 
nominative  case  because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb 
laid. 

4.  After  such  exhaustive  parsing  has  been  kept  up 
till  pupils  are  accustomed  to  thinking  the  reasons  for  all 
the  views  they  express,  the  work  should  be  shortened. 
This  may  be  done  by  omitting  the  reasons  (excepting 
when  pupils  give  evidence  of  guessing).  Another  brief 
form  consists  in  stating  only  matters  of  importance, 
which  are  determined  by  the  teacher's  questions. 
Instead  of  repeating  the  entire  round  of  number,  per- 
son, gender,  case,  etc.,  when  certain  of  them  are  very 
evident  in  the  words  that  are  being  treated,  only  one, 
or  a  few,  of  the  properties  may  be  given  attention. 

False  Syntax.  In  the  use  of  examples  of  false,  or 
improper,  syntax,  the  purpose  is  twofold :  ( i )  we  should 
use  it  as  a  means  of  testing  and  applying  the  child's 
knowledge  of  the  laws  of  syntax,  and  (2)  we  should 
aim  to  make  the  learner  conscious  of  the  defects  in 
his  own  speech. 

Many  times  when  a  law  is  stated  and  followed  by  an 
illustration,  the  illustration  as  a  whole  is  remembered  by 
the  child,  but  the  especial  point  of  significance  is  missed. 
This  error  may  be  avoided  either  by  having  the  learner 
supply  an  omission  in  the  incomplete  sentence  which  is 
offered  (such  omission  requiring  attention  to  the  point 
at  issue),  or  by  having  him  correct  a  mistaken  form  which 
is  presented,  and  give  the  reasons  for  the  correction. 


252  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

Again,  it  is  often  true  that  a  child  who  can  parse  and 
analyze  all  ordinary  sentences,  and  who  can  correct  the 
examples  of  false  syntax  presented  in  his  book,  will  yet 
violate  in  his  speech  many  of  the  laws  which  he  must 
know  in  order  to  do  intelligent  parsing,  analyzing,  or 
correcting.  There  seems  to  be  no  rational  explanation 
for  such  a  condition,  excepting  that  he  has  become 
habituated  to  the  use  of  certain  incorrect  forms,  which 
he  merely  fails  to  test  by  the  known  rules,  or  else  does 
not  know  that  he  uses  them.  Since  he  has  become  partial 
master  of  the  laws  of  construction,  the  one  thing  need- 
ful is  to  force  upon  his  notice  his  own  forms  of  speech. 
At  this  stage  of  the  work  we  have  entered  upon  the 
field  of  practical  composition.  The  only  difference  be- 
tween this  work  and  that  of  our  earlier  language  lessons 
is  that  now  the  learner  can  understand  the  reasons  for 
the  forms  that  are  required  of  him  and  need  no  longer 
be  given  arbitrary  models.  If  our  work  in  false  syntax 
is  to  fulfill  its  second  mission,  however,  it  must  be  accom- 
plished by  employing  the  method  of  the  language  class 
(practice)  ;  and,  in  connection  with  this,  we  may  accom- 
plish the  first  of  our  aims  by  assigning  reasons  for  all 
the  constructions  that  are  allowed. 

As  a  rule  it  will  be  found  unnecessary  to  manufacture 
false  forms  for  the  grammar  class.  Much  can  be  accom- 
plished by  having  pupils  supply  ellipses  ;  and  where  this 
is  not  sufficient  for  the  purpose,  the  expressions  of  the 
children  and  the  community  will  supply  all  the  types  of 
error  to  which  their  attention  should  be  called. 

An  objection  that  is  sometimes  urged  against  the  use 
of  false  syntax,  is  that  one  might  as  well  present  a  case 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  253 

of  false  spelling  with  a  view  to  having  a  child  learn  to 
spell  correctly  as  to  present  false  grammatical  construc- 
tions with  a  view  to  having  him  thereby  learn  to  make 
correct  sentences.  This  objection  seems  unfounded, 
because  in  the  case  of  spelling  there  usually  is  no  reason 
why  one  form  is  correct  and  another  form  incorrect, 
while  in  syntax  there  always  is  a  sufficient  reason,  and 
one  which  the  child  understands  when  he  is  prepared 
for  the  exercises  in  false  syntax.  However,  since  it  is 
not  our  aim  to  find  what  mistaken  combinations  a  child 
is  able  to  correct,  but  rather  to  use  actual  language  as  a 
means  of  impressing  upon  him  more  surely  the  struc- 
ture of  language,  we  recommend  going  to  the  school  and 
the  community  for  our  examples,  rather  than  manufac- 
turing them  for  the  occasion. 

Historical  Study  of  English  Grammar.  Finally, 
nothing  else  can  so  completely  round  out  a  learner's 
knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  English  language  as  a 
historical  study  of  the  language.  Besides  enlarging  his 
grasp  of  the  subject,  nothing  else  can  so  effectually  fill 
the  learner  with  the  idea  that  grammar  is  a  living,  growing 
thing,  and  thus  awaken  his  interest  in  it,  which  can  never 
be  aroused  by  the  dull,  monotonous  sorting  over  dry 
bones  in  parsing,  analysis,  etc.  It  is  the  opinion  of  so 
eminent  an  authority  as  J.  M.  D.  Meiklejohn  that  — 

"  the  study  of  English  grammar  is  becoming  every  day  more 
and  more  historical  —  and  necessarily  so.  There  are  scores  of 
inflections,  usages,  constructions,  idioms,  which  cannot  be  truly  or 
adequately  explained  without  a  reference  to  the  past  states  of  the 
language  —  to  a  time  wheu  it  was  a  synthetic  or  inflected  language, 
like  German  or  Latin." 


254  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

It  is  not  an  aim  of  this  work,  however,  to  do  more  than 
recommend  the  plan  to  teachers  and  direct  them  to  the 
sources  of  knowledge  which  they  need.  For  the  histori- 
cal method  the  following  works  should  be  consulted 
by  the  teacher :  "  History  of  the  English  Language," 
by  T.  R.  Lounsbury ;  "  The  English  Language,"  by 
J.  M.  D.  Meiklejohn  ;  "  The  Philology  of  the  English 
Tongue,"  by  John  Earle ;  and  "Historical  Outlines  of 
English  Accidence,"  by  Morris. 

It  is  also  strongly  recommended  that,  no  matter  what 
text-book  his  classes  use,  the  teacher  should  have  for 
personal  reference  such  works  as  "  How  to  Parse,"  by 
E.  A.  Abbott;  "Essentials  of  English  Grammar,"  by 
William  Dwight  Whitney  ;  and  "  Grammatical  Structure 
of  the  English  Language,"  by  John  Mulligan. 


SPELLING.  255 


CHAPTER    XVI. 
SPELLING. 

SPELLING  is  a  branch  in  the  learning  of  which  there 
is  no  set  of  mental  movements  to  be  considered.  In- 
vestigation plays  no  important  part  in  it  and  generaliza- 
tions are  practically  valueless.  It  is  true  that  there  are 
a  few  rules  of  spelling,  and  they  may  even  be  of  value 
at  times  ;  but  the  exceptions  are  so  numerous  and  the 
rules  themselves  so  little  needed  that  they  can-scarcely 
be  regarded  as  worth  the  effort  it  costs  to  learn  them. 
The  subject  merely  presents  a  large  set  of  items  which 
are  to  be  impressed  upon  the  learner's  being.  It  is 
commonly  said  that  spelling  presents  words  to  be  com- 
mitted to  memory;  but  as  this  is  usually  understood, 
it  seems  to  be  unsatisfactory.  To  make  spelling  practi- 
cally valuable,  one's  writing  arm  must  be  so  habituated 
to  producing  the  words  that,  as  soon  as  the  word  is 
thought,  its  execution  will  follow  without  minute  direc- 
tion being  given  to  the  hand. 

But  if  spelling  will  not  submit  to  the  methodical  treat- 
ment of  other  subjects,  it  is  nevertheless  very  important. 
To  be  a  good  speller  may  not  win  for  one  any  special 
mark  of  distinction,  but  to  be  a  poor  speller  will  often 
bring  upon  one  the  odium  which  attaches  to  ignorance. 
It  is  a  subject  which  all  who  have  had  opportunities 
are  expected  to  know,  and  which  it  is  somewhat  of  a 
disgrace  not  to  know. 


2$6  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

During  the  first  two  years  of  school  life,  the  child's 
original  learning  of  new  words  will  take  place  almost 
exclusively  in  the  recitation  ;  his  seat  work  will  be  for 
the  purpose  of  impressing  more  firmly  what  he  has 
acquired.  At  the  beginning  of  this  period  it  will  be 
found  valuable  to  have  all  his  spelling  done  in  full 
sentences.  (Of  course,  no  oral  spelling  will  be  under- 
taken until  after  the  child  has  mastered  the  letter 
names  in  his  reading  class.)  The  advantages  in  teach- 
ing spelling  by  the  use  of  full  sentences  are  numerous. 
It  keeps  before  the  learner's  mind  all  that  he  has 
learned  in  reading ;  it  prepares  him  immediately  to 
write  what  he  speaks ;  and  it  makes  the  learning  of 
spelling  an  intelligent  and  rapid  process. 

After  such  work  in  the  spelling  class  has  been  kept 
up  until  the  child  can  spell  correctly  at  least  one  hun- 
dred of  the  words  he  speaks  and  reads,  isolated  words 
may  be  taken  These  should  be  put  into  groups  con- 
taining similar  letter  elements,  just  as  the  words  are 
massed  for  phonic  analysis  in  the  reading  class.  Such 
a  plan  enables  the  teacher  to  call  especial  attention  to 
the  differences  in  similar  words,  and  it  makes  a  single 
learning  of  the  similar  parts  serve  for  the  mastery  of 
many  words. 

Illustration  —  at,  cat,  bat,  sat,  rat,  fat,  flat,  hat,  mat, 
vat. 

Later,  when  the  unity  of  word  forms  is  no  longer 
necessary  as  an  aid  to  learning,  the  words  may  be  taken 
from  the  ordinary  spelling  book,  though  at  all  times  the 
words  one  uses  in  speech  should  be  the  ones  most  care- 
fully attended  to  in  spelling. 


SPELLING.  257 

When  the  child  has  advanced  in  his  spelling  to  the 
point  where  he  can  study  the  lesson  in  preparation  for 
the  recitation,  the  teacher's  work  in  the  class  will  be 
confined  to  testing  and  stimulating  him,  and  to  direct- 
ing him  in  the  proper  methods  of  study.  It  is  more 
thoroughly  true  of  spelling  than  of  any  other  branch  in 
the  curriculum  that,  if  value  is  to  come  from  the  work 
at  this  stage,  it  must  come  from  the  child's  method  of 
study,  and  not  from  the  recitation.  However,  it  is 
possible  to  employ  a  method  of  testing  which  will  not 
reveal  the  child's  grasp  of  spelling  at  the  times  when  he 
needs  to  spell,  —  while  he  is  writing  in  connected  dis- 
course. To  guard  against  this  error,  much  of  the  spell- 
ing should  be  done  as  dictation  exercises.  This  will 
necessitate  the  use  of  the  written  method  of  recitation. 
When  isolated  words  are  given  for  spelling  it  makes  but 
little  difference  whether  the  recitation  is  oral  or  written  ; 
the  way  in  which  the  child  studies  the  lesson  is  the  im- 
portant consideration.  As  a  matter  of  expediency,  the 
oral  and  written  plans  should  both  be  used  in  the  recita- 
tion, because  greater  variety  and  attractiveness  can  thus 
be  given  to  the  subject,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the 
learner's  interest  in  it  be  greatly  stimulated. 

All  words  misspelled  in  the  recitation  should  be  kept 
for  stated  review.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  value  of  the 
test  is  greatly  reduced.  Indeed,  it  seems  to  be  almost 
a  waste  of  time.  The  child  needs  his  attention  directed 
in  a  special  manner  to  the  words  he  cannot  spell.  If 
these  are  dropped  when  the  lesson  is  ended,  the  proba- 
bility is  they  will  not  soon  be  learned.  But  if  only 
these  words  are  brought  up  for  the  stated  review,  this 


258  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

will  direct  the  child's  effort  to  the  place  where  it  is  most 
needed. 

Plans  for  Studying  Spelling. 

All  the  plans  for  studying  spelling  may  be  arranged 
in  two  groups,  —  those  which  impress  form  and  those 
which  impress  sound.  The  process  that  is  best  for  one 
child  to  employ  in  learning  to  spell  may  not  be  the 
process  best  suited  to  another  child.  If  a  learner  is 
decidedly  ear-minded,  he  can  doubtless  learn  a  spelling 
lesson  best  by  saying  it  aloud  ;  if  he  is  decidedly  eye- 
minded,  writing  will  be  the  best  means  of  learning  to 
spell.  Accordingly  the  following  plans  are  recom- 
mended :  — 

1.  Have  children  study  the  spelling  lesson  by  thought- 
fully writing  the  words.     This   is   better  than   simply 
looking   at   the  words,   even  for  an   eye-minded  child, 
because  it   makes  use  of  his  motor  side  as  an  aid  in 
impressing  the  form. 

2.  Have  children  say  aloud  the  names  of  the  letters 
which  form  a  word.     To  prevent  the  confusion  which 
would  result  from  the  use  of  such  a  plan  in  the  school- 
room, have  children  study  the  spelling  lessons  at  home. 

3.  Teach   children  to   look    over    each    new   spelling 
lesson  when  they  begin  to  study  it,  and  to  strike  out  the 
words  they  are  sure  they  can  spell.     This  plan  will  save 
the  child  from  wasting  his  energies,  and  it  will  enable 
him  to  repeat  the  unknown  words  more  frequently,  thus 
employing  his  energies  where  they  will  give  the  largest 
return. 

4.  Whether  a  child  studies  the  lesson  by  writing  it  or 


SPELLING.  259 

by  saying  it,  impress  upon  him  the  importance  of  giving 
his  undivided  attention  to  the  work  at  hand.  In  the  study 
of  spelling  (a  subject  that  appeals  to  the  arbitrary 
memory)  this  direction  is  more  important  than  in  the 
study  of  a  subject  which  appeals  to  the  reason.  In  the 
latter,  thought  is  the  dominant  activity,  and  the  learner 
can  recover  himself  when  he  finds  that  his  mind  is  wan- 
dering. But  in  spelling,  the  repetition  is  liable  to  become 
purely  mechanical,  and  the  learner  believes  himself  to 
be  really  studying,  provided  only  that  he  is  active. 
Mind  wandering  is  to  be  deplored  at  all  times,  but  it  is 
peculiarly  disastrous  in  the  study  of  a  subject  which  is  to 
be  impressed  in  its  integrity  upon  the  memory. 

5.  Arrange  the  school  programme  so  that  the  study 
of  spelling  shall  not  come  at  a  time  when  the  child  is 
greatly  wearied.  If  he  studies  at  home,  explain  to  him 
the  unwisdom  of  endeavoring  to  study  spelling  (or  any 
other  arbitrary  memory  subject)  when  he  is  worn  out 
with  other  study.  Remember  that  the  arbitrary  mem- 
ory is  the  first  faculty  to  feel  the  disastrous  effects  of 
excessive  weariness.  No  study  should  be  continued 
after  the  point  of  extreme  fatigue  is  reached,  and  this  is 
peculiarly  true  of  anything  that  is  addressed  to  the 
memory  alone. 


26O  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 
HISTORY. 

OF  all  the  subjects  in  the  curriculum  none  is  better 
suited  than  history  to  arouse  in  the  learner  a  natural  and 
enthusiastic  interest.  Its  portrayal  of  the  doings  of 
men,  —  their  brave  deeds,  great  achievements,  heroic 
virtues,  and  lives  of  devotion  to  principle,  —  while  some- 
times interrupted  by  the  record  of  vice  even  in  high 
places,  is  admirably  adapted  to  awaken  within  the  youth- 
ful mind  the  desire  for  a  nobler  life  and  for  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  great  and  the  good  of  all  ages. 
Yet,  notwithstanding  all  these  possibilities  of  the  subject, 
it  is  often  presented  in  such  a  manner  as  to  fill  the  child 
with  disgust  for  it,  and  to  impress  upon  him  the  idea 
that  it  is  simply  a  set  of  lifeless  statements  about  imper- 
sonal events.  This  result  must  be  due  chiefly  to  the 
method  of  presentation,  for  there  is  nothing  in  the 
nature  of  the  subject  which  would  produce  it,  neither  can 
it  be  accounted  for  by  any  lack  of  interest  on  the  part 
of  the  child  in  the  items  of  which  history  treats.  Much 
can  be  done,  therefore,  to  prevent  such  an  outcome  if 
teachers  get  their  minds  right  with  respect  to  the  nature 
of  the  subject,  the  ends  to  be  aimed  at  in  its  presenta- 
tion, and  the  consequent  methods  of  teaching  it. 

Since  it  is  with  man  that  the  student  of  history  is 
especially  concerned/  he  should  be  prepared  for  such 
study  by  being  made  acquainted  with  men,  at  a  time 


HISTORY.  26l 

when  he  is  not  yet  mature  enough  to  understand  the 
actions  of  communities.  Accordingly,  the  years  of  school 
life  which  precede  his  introduction  to  formal  history 
should  furnish  him  many  opportunities  to  learn  biogra- 
phy and  striking  incidents  not  chronologically  arranged. 
Since  history  is  teeming  with  incidents  "  stranger  than 
fiction,"  there  is  perhaps  no  longing  of  the  human  heart 
which  cannot  be  illustrated  by  incidents  taken  from  its 
pages,  and  no  thirst  for  the  weird  and  wonderful  that 
cannot  be  satisfied  here  as  well  as  from  the  pages  of 
fiction.  This  is  not  meant  as  a  recommendation  to  dis- 
pense with  the  use  of  the  purely  imaginative  in  litera- 
ture, and  to  confine  the  child  to  the  cold  matter-of-fact ; 
but  it  is  meant  to  remind  teachers  of  the  wonderful 
fertility  of  the  field  of  history. 

For  this  early  portion  of  school  life,  the  biographies 
presented  should  deal  largely  with  the  youth  of  the 
characters  studied,  in  order  that  we  may  arouse  the 
learner's  interest  in  their  lives.  The  child,  in  his  imma- 
turity and  inexperience,  can  be  interested  in  the  exploits 
of  children  when,  because  of  its  meaninglessness,  he  will 
not  be  moved  by  a  recital  of  the  achievements  of  great 
men.  Consequently  the  boyhood  days  of  eminent  men 
should  be  used  as  a  means  of  leading  the  learner  to  un- 
derstand and  appreciate  their  later  developments  in 
character  and  accomplishment.  The  boyhood  days  of 
Lincoln  in  his  home  of  poverty  and  amidst  his  scenes  of 
busy  industry ;  the  tow-path  experiences  of  Garfield  ; 
the  apprenticeship  of  Franklin  in  his  brother's  printing 
office  and  his  later  adventures  in  getting  established  in 
business  ;  the  brave  deeds  of  the  boy  Farragut,  made  a 


262  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

midshipman  at  the  age  of  ten  —  all  these,  and  many 
others,  will  reveal  more  of  human  character  and  of  the 
possibilities  of  human  life  to  the  child  than  can  ever  be 
impressed  by  the  study  of  what  he  finds  recorded  in  the 
ordinary  school  history.  The  one  common  element  run- 
ning through  such  lives,  which  has  given  to  them  their 
breadth  and  stability,  is  the  element  of  persevering  in- 
dustry, the  struggle  for  self-improvement,  which  often 
caused  them  to  sacrifice  their  meals  by  day  and  their 
rest  by  night.  Such  lives  reveal  the  presence  of  an 
immense  faith  in  human  endeavor,  for  it  is  a  notable  fact 
that  the  majority  of  men  who  have  become  famous  could 
say,  as  did  Henry  Clay,  "  The  only  things  I  inherited 
were  ignorance  and  indigence." 

Furthermore,  the  private  deeds  of  men  whose  brilliant 
services  adorn  the  pages  of  history  will  appeal  more 
strongly  to  the  young  than  their  finest  victories  upon 
the  field  of  battle  or  in  the  halls  of  legislation.  King 
Alfred's  experiences  with  the  burning  cakes  a  child  can 
understand,  when  he  will  know  nothing  of  treaty  making 
or  the  expansion  of  empires.  Washington's  fair  but  ex- 
acting treatment  of  the  miserly  ferry  passenger  will 
reveal  to  children  a  trait  in  his  character  that  was  influ- 
ential in  making  him  the  wise  councilor  and  efficient 
leader  that  he  was ;  Robert  Bruce' s  experience  with  the 
persevering  spider  may  serve  to  inflame  many  a  young 
life  with  a  holy  zeal,  when  even  an  extended  study  of 
persistent  industry  or  unswerving  fortitude  in  a  domain 
foreign  to  the  child's  experience  could  have  no  apprecia- 
ble influence.  Such  things  will  reveal  more  truly  the 
inner  character  of  the  man  than  will  his  public  deeds ; 


HISTORY.  263 

and  at  this  stage  of  the  work  a  true  insight  into  the 
character  of  men  is  of  more  vital  moment  to  the  child 
than  a  knowledge  of  their  political  achievements. 

When  striking  events  are  presented  to  the  child  at 
this  stage  of  his  advancement,  they  should  be  chosen 
with  especial  reference  to  his  dominant  interests.  The 
language  class,  reading  class,  and  all  other  opportunities 
for  increasing  the  learner's  store  of  general  information, 
will  furnish  the  occasions  for  awakening,  directing,  and 
stimulating  his  interests,  and  at  the  same  time  for  im- 
pressing upon  him  the  facts  which  will  serve  later  to 
illumine  the  pages  of  history.  The  items  referred  to 
now  are  not  single  deeds  which  cluster  about  a  name 
better  known  than  the  deeds  themselves,  but  rather, 
events  in  the  march  of  time  which,  in  the  minds  of  most 
men,  stand  out  boldly,  and  often  have  no  name  of  an 
actor  associated  with  them.  The  invention  of  printing, 
of  gunpowder,  of  the  cotton  gin ;  the  laying  of  the  At- 
lantic cable,  and  the  construction  of  the  first  telegraph 
line ;  the  running  of  the  first  train  of  steam  cars ;  the 
building  of  the  Mississippi  River  jetties,  of  the  Brooklyn 
Bridge,  of  the  Niagara  suspension  bridge ;  and  many 
other  less  familiar,  but  no  less  interesting,  ones  will  serve 
as  illustrations. 

But  though  it  is  wise  and  important  to  present  biog- 
raphy and  scattered  incident  during  the  early  school 
days,  before  the  child  is  able  to  take  the  sterner  study 
of  history,  we  must  not  make  the  mistake  of  thinking 
that  this  is  history.  "  History  is  a  methodical  record  of 
the  important  events  which  concern  a  community  of  men, 
usually  so  arranged  as  to  show  the  connection  of  causes 


264  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

and  effects."  It  is  a  "  statement  of  the  progress  of  a 
nation  or  an  institution,  with  philosophical  inquiries  re- 
specting effects  and  causes." 

These  are  two  important  items  for  every  teacher  of 
history  to  keep  clearly  before  his  mind  —  the  commu- 
nity life  of  men,  and  the  relations  of  the  several  historic 
events  to  each  other.  Man  in  society  is  a  different 
creature  from  a  man  in  isolation.  His  best  physical, 
intellectual,  or  ethical  development  requires  that  he 
should  live  in  touch  with  others.  He  is  a  social  being, 
and  as  an  individual  he  is  no  more  the  unit  of  study  in 
history  than  a  twig  is  the  unit  of  study  in  trees.  Each 
man  is  so  dependent  upon  others  that  a  single  biography 
is  but  an  element  arbitrarily  abstracted  from  the  full 
current  of  history.  All  men  are  so  bound  together  in 
their  life  of  mutual  dependence,  that  no  one  life  can  be 
understood  unless  it  is  studied  as  influenced  by  its  envi- 
ronment. It  is  only  as  he  is  duly  impressed  with  this 
important  truth,  that  the  learner  will  ever  come  to  have 
any  better  conception  of  history  than  that  it  is  a  record 
of  the  deeds  of  a  certain  discoverer,  king,  general,  or 
statesman.  The  really  vital  part  in  the  world's  progress, 
the  advance  of  mankind,  will  entirely  escape  his  notice 
because  of  the  luster  which  attaches  to  a  few  of  the 
leading  lights  along  the  way. 

Even  when  this  item  is  clear  to  the  minds  of  both 
teacher  and  pupil,  the  full  significance  of  the  historic 
record  is  not  exhausted.  It  is  further  necessary  that 
the  various  items  should  be  seen  in  their  proper  setting. 
To  this  end,  a  simple  chronological  order,  or  record  of 
events  which  conforms  to  the  time  order  of  their  occur- 


HISTORY.  265 

fence  as  its  distinctive  feature,  is  "not  enough.  Events 
must  be  so  massed  and  presented  as  to  bring  out  into 
bold  relief  their  logical  relations  of  cause  and  effect, 
interdependence,  etc. 

This  suggests  the  importance  of  making  a  clear  distinc- 
tion between  the  two  elements  of  historic  study, — his- 
toric facts  and  the  philosophy  of  history.  Corresponding 
to  this  twofold  division  of  the  subject,  we  must  note  the 
two  stages  in  the  method  of  presentation,  —  that  which 
offers  items  of  historic  fact  (the  individual  notions  of 
history)  to  be  impressed  upon  the  memory;  and  that 
which  strives  to  build  up  the  great  historic  concepts,  or 
general  notions,  which  in  their  turn  can  serve  as  guides 
to  an  understanding  of  present  and  future  social  needs 
and  of  the  requirements  of  national  prosperity.  This 
distinction  must  not  be  confused  with  that  which  was 
drawn  between  biography  and  scattered  events  of  interest 
on  the  one  hand,  and  history  on  the  other.  Such  frag- 
mentary elements  constitute  only  the  introduction,  and 
occasional  side  lights,  to  the  great  course  of  history 
proper.  In  that  course,  however,  we  must  discriminate 
between  the  facts,  which,  when  apprehended  as  facts, 
can  be  addressed  only  to  the  memory  ;  and  the  philosophy, 
which  is  addressed  to  the  reason  of  the  child  and  is 
made  possible  only  upon  a  basis  of  solid  facts. 

It  is  not  to  be  thought  that  these  two  phases  of  his- 
toric study  should  be  kept  distinct  in  time  and  that  one 
of  them  should  be  completed  before  the  other  is  begun. 
The  philosophic  aspect  is  undoubtedly  the  goal  to  be 
aimed  at,  but  the  study  of  facts  can  never  end  so  long 
as  history  continues  to  be  made ;  and  questions  of  mo- 


266  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

tive,  cause,  importance,  and  other  opinions  should  be 
asked  in  all  stages  of  the  work,  provided  only  that  they 
are  kept  within  the  child's  range  of  mental  development 
and  historic  information. 

It  is  important  to  remember,  however,  that  when  facts 
are  being  presented  we  must  employ  a  method  of  teach- 
ing that  is  very  different  in  its  character  from  the  method 
to  be  used  when  historic  concepts  are  being  developed. 
Furthermore,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  predomi- 
nating element  to  receive  attention  in  the  early  part  of 
the  course  is  historic  fact,  and  that  this  predominance 
only  gradually  grows  proportionately  less  as  we  advance 
up  the  grades.  The  matter  of  first  importance  at  all 
stages  of  the  work  is,  that  the  child  shall  know ;  then 
it  is  possible  for  him  to  indulge  wisely  in  judgments  and 
opinions  which  become  worthy  of  expression,  because 
they  are  the  outcome  of  a  full  mind. 

Historic  Facts. 

The  plan  so  prevalent  in  the  schools,  of  learning  his- 
toric facts  in  masses  of  five  or  six  pages  at  a  lesson,  is 
positively  pernicious.  It  is  destructive  of  all  unity,  and 
it  thereby  overburdens  the  arbitrary  memory  and  lessens 
the  probability  that  the  child  will  apprehend  the  relations 
of  the  facts  to  each  other.  Failing  in  this  last,  he  must 
necessarily  fail  to  comprehend  and  appreciate  history. 
This  plan  is  still  further  objectionable  because,  in  addi- 
tion to  offering  the  child  a  historic  report  which  is  with- 
out coherency,  it  is  generally  given  to  him  from  the  very 
beginning  of  his  study  of  history,  thus  impressing  upon 
him  the  idea  that  the  actual  matter  under  consideration  in 


HISTORY.  267 

this  branch  of  study  is  that  which  is  contained  in  a  book. 
What  we  should  aim  at  in  teaching  history  is  to  impress 
the  child  with  the  idea  that  he  is  now  learning  about 
communities  of  men  in  action,  and  that  he  can  understand 
these  only  as  he  sees  them  in  their  proper  relations  to 
each  other.  The  above  plan  of  procedure  fails  in  both  of 
these  particulars. 

To  direct  the  learner's  thought  to  the  actual  reality  in 
history  (the  actions  of  society,  or  men,  in  relation  to  each 
other),  we  should  use  the  events  which  are  transpiring 
about  him.  The  subject  can  thus  be  made  of  vital 
interest,  if  we  will  use  the  national  celebrations  in  which 
the  child  actually  participates,  and,  with  these  as  a  basis, 
discuss  their  meaning,  what  brought  them  about,  what 
fixed  their  time,  and  all  other  matters  which  grow  natu- 
rally out  of  them.  In  the  same  manner  we  can  use  the 
actual  doings  of  the  government  as  revealed  in  its  post- 
offices,  its  mints,  national  and  state  elections,  the  courts, 
the  newspaper  reports  of  legislation,  etc. 

The  aim  in  all  this  is  to  prevent  the  child  from  start- 
ing upon  the  study  of  history  with  the  mistaken  impres- 
sion that  it  is  a  lot  of  statements  to  be  found  in  a  certain 
book  ;  or,  if  his  error  is  not  so  glaring  as  that,  to  prevent 
him  from  thinking  that  it  has  to  do  only  with  the  remote 
past,  with  things  that  are  completed  and  whose  effects 
are  spent,  and  that  it  has  no  connection  with  the  present. 

Having  had  his  attention  directed  to  the  events  in  the 
midst  of  which  he  lives,  and  about  which  he  can  see 
that  there  clusters  great  interest  for  all  earnest  men,  he 
will  be  prepared  to  use  the  book  in  history  as  the  means 
of  learning  how  the  people  of  the  past  lived  and  acted, 


268  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

and  thus  brought  about  the  present  state  of  society  of 
which  he  forms  a  part.  Not  only  should  the  child's 
attention  be  called  to  national  events  as  they  transpire, 
for  the  purpose  of  introducing  him  to  the  study  of  history  ; 
but  at  all  stages  of  advancement  in  the  work,  his  mind 
should  be  kept  upon  the  actual  reality  of  the  subject  by 
means  of  such  events. 

As  suggestive  of  the  fertile  field  open  to  the  teacher 
of  history  who  employs  such  realities,  we  may  mention, 
in  addition  to  those  already  given,  the  following  :  presi- 
dential messages,  tariff  revisions,  reprints  of  ancient 
manuscripts,  such  as  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
various  treaties,  official  letters,  epoch-making  speeches, 
court  decisions,  convention  reports,  or  books.  Such 
items  should  be  introduced  in  their  proper  places,  so  that 
they  may  add  to  the  bare  report  of  the  text-book  all 
that  is  required  to  make  it  significant  and  intelligible. 

With  the  learner's  attention  wisely  directed  to  the 
realities  of  history,  our  next  problem  is  to  determine 
how  we  can  present  historic  items  so  that  their  proper  re- 
lations may  be  apprehended  and  they  may  be  understood. 
It  seems  clear  that  in  history,  as  elsewhere,  if  the  learner 
is  to  deal  with  the  relations  of  things,  the  things  must  be 
presented  to  him  in  relations.  This  can  be  done  by  pre- 
senting historic  items  in  complete  epochs  and  having 
these  analyzed.  Individual  facts  can  thus  be  viewed  in 
the  light  of  the  larger  enterprises  of  which  they  form  the 
parts.  Only  by  giving  to  the  child  such  an  outlook  as 
this  can  we  hope  to  have  him  rationally  organize  his 
items  of  information.*  Disorganization  among  the  items 
ef  his  knowledge  must  result  in  lack  of  comprehension 


HISTORY.  269 

and  in  an  inability  to  remember.     As  B.  A.  H  nsdale 
says : — 

"  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  placed  on  organization  as  essential 
to  real  knowledge.  But,  further,  it  is  as  necessary  to  its  retention 
as  to  its  acquirement.  .  .  .  Individual  events  compose  a  series  of 
events ;  but  to  understand  the  events  singly,  it  is  as  necessary  to 
have  a  knowledge  of  the  series  as  it  is  to  have  a  knowledge  of  the 
individual  facts  in  order  to  understand  the  series.  All  organized 
knowledge  begins  with  learning  a  certain  nurnber  of  facts  and 
truths ;  and  these  must  not  be  limited  in  their  range,  but  compre- 
hensive. ...  A  man  at  any  particular  period  of  his  career  —  as 
Cromwell,  when  he  became  Lord  Protector,  Napoleon,  when  he 
assumed  the  imperial  crown,  or  Lincoln,  when  he  was  inaugurated 
President  —  is  an  absolute  enigma,  cut  off  from  his  own  previous 
life  and  the  life  of  his  country." 

Speaking  further  upon  the  subject  of  historical  study, 
he  says :  — 

"  The  great  advantage  of  the  period  (epoch)  is,  that  the  term 
does  not  connote  a  fixed  length  of  time,  like  year,  decade,  or 
century.  Some  periods  are  long,  some  short.  It  is  rarely  pos- 
sible to  tell  in  years  how  long  a  period  is ;  still  it  has  a  beginning 
and  an  end,  and  is  marked  by  certain  features  giving  it  a  unity 
that  makes  it  possible  for  the  mind  to  grasp  it  as  a  whole. 
These  features  may  be  religious,  political,  or  military,  or  ^ 
blending  of  various  elements.  The  Protestant  Reformation  was 
a  political,  a  national,  an  intellectual,  and  an  economical  move- 
ment as  well  as  a  religious  one.  Obviously,  therefore,  the  concep- 
tion of  the  period  is  essential  to  the  right  interpretation  of  his- 
tory." 

In  illustration  of  this  analytic  method  of  treating  his- 
tory by  epochs,  the  following  is  offered  :  — 

(This  treatment,  and  the  outline  which  follows,  are 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 


supplied  by  my  former  colleague,  Prof.  Smith  Burnham, 
Professor  of  History  in  the  State  Normal  School  at  West 
Chester,  Pa.) 

The  Period  of  Colonization  in  American  History. 

/.  Time,  1600-1688  (or,  in  general,  the  seventeenth 
century).  The  French  and  the  English  colonized  North 
America.  (The  student  has  already  noted  that  the 
sixteenth  century  was  the  period  of  Spanish  explora- 
tion, conquest,  and  colonization  in  the  West  Indies, 
Mexico,  Central  and  South  America.  He  has  been 
taught  that  the  Spaniards  thirsted  for  adventure,  con- 
quest, and  wealth  ;  that  they  were  actuated  to  some 
extent  by  religious  zeal  ;  but  that  on  the  whole  their 
aims  were  sordid,  their  commercial  policy  exclusive,  their 
morals  lax,  their  treatment  of  the  natives  cruel,  and  that 
they  showed  a  tendency  to  descend  in  the  scale  of 
civilization.) 

II.  Place,  including  a  brief  study  of  physiography  and 
its  influence  on  historical  development. 

The  Atlantic  seaboard,  the  valley  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  the  country  about  the  Great  Lakes  were  the 
regions  first  occupied  by  Europeans.  Note  that  the 
seaboard  is  broad  and  inviting,  abounds  in  good  harbors, 
has  numerous  rivers  by  means  of  which  the  land  can  be 
explored  for  long  distances  from  the  coast  ;  that  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes  furnished  the  French- 
man a  highway  into  the  heart  of  the  continent  ;  that 
easy  portages  then  took  him  to  the  tributaries  of  the 
Mississippi  ;  that  the  Hudson  and  Lakes  George  and 


HISTORY.  271 

Champlain  form  the  natural  highway  from  Canada  south 
to  the  ocean;  that  the  sources  of  the  Potomac  and 
other  southern  rivers  are  hard  by  the  head  waters  of  the 
tributaries  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi.  Consider 
the  varying  aspects  of  the  Atlantic  border.  In  New 
England  the  coast  is  narrow,  harbors  are  abundant,  short 
and  rapid  rivers  furnish  excellent  water  power ;  while  in 
the  South,  the  long,  broad,  slowly  flowing  rivers  serve 
as  roads  to  the  large,  isolated  plantations  strung  along 
their  banks.  The  Hudson  and  the  Potomac  lead  far 
inland,  are  paths  to  the  waterways  of  the  interior,  and 
divide  the  Atlantic  slope  into  three  divisions  within  which 
grew  up  three  distinct  groups  of  colonies.  Show  the 
varieties  of  soil  and  climate,  the  forest  character  of  the 
country,  and  the  abundance  of  fur-bearing  animals  in 
Canada  and  the  interior. 

///.   The  Colonizing  PEOPLES  and  Their  MOTIVES. 

1.  The  French  occupied  the  valley  of  the  St.   Law- 
rence and  rapidly  penetrated  the  interior.     Their  motives 
were  commercial  and  religious.     The  fur  trader  and  the 
missionary  were  the  typical  French  Americans.     Few  in 
number,  the  French  were  hampered  by  the    effort   to 
introduce  the  social,  political,  and  ecclesiastical  system 
of  France.     An  eminent  authority  says  :  "  Paternalism, 
centralization  and  bureaucratic  government,  official  rot- 
tenness, instability  of  system,  religious  exclusiveness,  and 
a  vicious  system  of  land  tenure  were  the  prime  causes  of 
the  ruin  of  New  France." 

2.  The  English   colonized   the   Atlantic    coast    from 
Maine   to  Georgia.      Various   motives   actuated   them. 


2/2  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

Some  of  the  more  important  were  the  love  of  adventure ; 
the  desire  to  better  their  economic  condition,  in  some 
cases  the  desire  to  rid  England  of  a  pauper  element ;  the 
commercial  spirit,  the  desire  to  escape  oppressive  politi- 
cal and  religious  conditions ;  the  hope  of  founding  states 
in  which  their  own  social,  political,  and  religious  ideals 
might  be  realized.  Unlike  the  French,  they  suffered 
little  interference  from  the  mother  country,  and  were 
largely  left  to  work  out  their  own  salvation. 

IV.  Characteristic  Differences  of  Development  and 
Their  Causes. 

The  sharp  contrast  between  the  French  and  English 
colonies  and  colonists,  and  the  differences  of  develop- 
ment noticeable  among  the  thirteen  English  colonies  are 
directly  traceable  to  certain  easily  ascertainable  causes. 
Among  these  causes  three  stand  out  prominently. 

I .  The  historical  inheritance,  social,  political,  and  reli- 
gions, which  the  colonists  brought  with  them. 

(a)  The  Frenchman  came  with  the  feudal  idea  of  society, 
which  still  prevailed  so  widely  in  France.  He  had  been 
reared  under  a  paternal  government  which  assumed  to 
do  everything  for  the  citizen,  and  consequently  tended 
to  weaken  his  political  self-reliance.  He  was  a  zeal- 
ous religionist  of  the  reactionary  type,  developed  by  re- 
sistance to  the  spread  of  Protestantism  in  Europe.  This 
historical  inheritance  partly  accounts  for  the  feudal 
character  of  society  in  French  Canada,  for  the  seignior 
and  his  habitants,  for  the  absence  of  local  self-govern- 
ment, and  the  attempt  to  control  affairs  from  Paris, 
and  for  the  religious  exclusiveness  which  prevailed. 


HISTORY.  2/3 

(b)  The  English,  on  the  other  hand,  though  recog- 
nizing distinct  social  classes,  were  free,  liberty-loving, 
self-reliant,  individualistic.  They  had  maintained  their 
political  rights  for  centuries  against  the  assaults  of  baron 
and  king.  They  had  a  system  of  local  self-government 
and  common  law  which,  during  more  than  a  thousand 
years  of  growth,  had  been  becoming  a  part  of  the  life  of 
the  people.  Moreover,  they  had  been  on  the  winning 
side  in  the  sixteenth-century  struggle  for  intellectual 
and  religious  liberty.  These  facts  go  a  long  way  toward 
accounting  for  the  striking  contrast  between  the  French 
and  the  English  colonies. 

This  principle  finds  further  exemplification  as  we  com- 
pare the  different  English  colonies.  The  middle-class 
Puritan  Roundhead  of  New  England,  with  his  peculiar 
ideals  of  society  and  morals,  developed  social  and  politi- 
cal institutions  of  a  very  different  type  from  those  of  the 
aristocratic  Episcopalian  Cavalier  of  Virginia,  the  nat- 
ural and  necessary  progenitor  of  the  Southern  Chivalry 
of  ante-bellum  days.  Take  for  another  example  the 
sharp  contrasts  between  the  English  Quakers,  the  Dutch, 
and  the  Scotch-Irish  in  colonial  Pennsylvania. 

2.  The  purposes  and  motives  of  the  colonists  as 
stated  above,  under  III. 

The  fur-trading  purpose  of  the  Frenchman  made  him 
cultivate  the  friendship  of  the  Indians,  led  him  to  ex- 
plore the  interior  of  the  continent,  and  made  him  oppose 
agricultural  settlement  as  likely  to  destroy  the  fur-bear- 
ing animals.  It  made  the  Frenchmen  of  the  lower  class 
trappers  and  hunters,  and  led  them  to  live  with  the  In- 
dians and  to  intermarry  with  them. 


2/4  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

Improper  motives  account  for  most  of  the  early  fail- 
ures in  colonization.  The  colonies  of  Raleigh  and  the 
early  settlement  in  Virginia  could  not  succeed  so  long 
as  a  romantic  spirit  of  adventure  and  a  thirst  for  gold 
were  their  guiding  stars.  Success  began  when  men 
came  to  cultivate  the  soil,  to  build,  to  trade,  to  make 
homes,  to  found  states. 

3.  Environment. 

Physical  conditions  and  surroundings  greatly  modified 
development  in  all  the  colonies.  To  take  but  one  ex- 
ample :  In  Massachusetts,  the  sterile  soil ;  the  short, 
rapid  rivers  ;  the  proximity  to  the  sea ;  the  abundance  of 
timber,  led  many  of  the  people  at  an  early  date  to  turn 
from  farming  to  fishing,  shipbuilding,  and  trading.  These 
physical  conditions,  together  with  the  fear  of  Indian 
attack,  and  the  fact  that  the  people  often  came  in  con- 
gregations, led  them  to  settle  in  towns,  partly  determined 
the  importance  of  the  church,  and  was  largely  account- 
able for  the  development  of  the  township  system  of  gov- 
ernment, which  made  possible  the  fostering  of  public 
schools  and  was  so  potent  a  factor  in  the  political  educa- 
tion of  the  people.  In  Virginia,  on  the  other  hand,  soil, 
climate,  the  many  rivers  which  served  as  great  highways 
into  the  interior,  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  which  found 
a  ready  market  in  England,  together  with  the  later 
introduction  of  slavery,  led  the  people  to  live  on  great 
plantations,  long  distances  apart.  This  virtually  made 
township  government  and  public  schools  an  impossibility 
It  caused  the  preeminence  of  the  county  in  government, 
and  combined  with  other  causes  to  produce  the  peculiar 
social  life  of  the  South. 


HISTORY.  2/5 

Nature  decreed  that  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland 
should  be  agricultural  colonies,  that  the  early  Dutch 
settler  at  Albany  should  be  a  fur  trader,  and  that  the 
lowlands  of  South  Carolina  should  be  devoted  to  the 
growth  of  rice  and  indigo,  the  last,  a  fact  of  mighty 
import  in  the  history  of  that  colony. 

V.  Details. 

Teach  as  many  as  time  will  permit.  Place  special 
stress  on  biography ;  on  the  lives  of  what  may  be  called 
the  Makers  of  America.  Where  time  is  limited  it  might 
be  well  to  select  some  typical  event  for  detailed  study. 
Thus,  a  study  of  King  Philip's  War  would  illustrate  the 
character  of  all  Indian  wars.  The  Pennsylvanian  might 
give  especial  attention  to  the  details  of  the  colonial  his- 
tory of  his  own  state.  Note  how  government,  local  and 
general,  were  developed.  Quite  as  important  as  a  knowl- 
edge of  details  —  nay,  far  more  important  —  is  insight 
into  the,  spirit  and  thought  which  underlie  and  account 
for  the  action  of  the  past.  This  insight  is  best  secured 
through  class-room  discussion,  and  by  collateral  reading, 
and  topical  work.  Put  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  the 
best  selections  from  the  standard  authors,  bits  of  stir- 
ring narrative,  apt  characterizations  and  judicious  opin- 
ions. In  this  connection  make  as  wide  use  as  possible 
of  original  and  contemporaneous  material.  Children  are 
peculiarly  susceptible  to  the  epic  and  dramatic  elements 
in  the  story  of  the  past.  Take  advantage  of  this  fact. 
Let  the  soul  of  the  pupil  thrill  with  the  story  of  daring 
deed  and  heroic  achievement,  of  fortitude  in  suffering,  and 
intrepidity  in  danger.  Let  him  read,  in  the  language  of 


276  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

the  time,  of  the  wrongs  of  the  people ;  let  him  study  the 
orations  which  roused  them  to  action  ;  let  him  sing  the 
songs  which  fired  their  souls  in  the  day  of  battle.  Let 
him  mark  the  stages  in  the  development  of  political 
institutions  by  a  study  of  the  great  constitutional  docu- 
ments and  state  papers.  Help  him  to  understand  and 
appreciate  the  religious,  aesthetic,  and  ethical  ideals,  and 
life  of  the  past,  by  giving  him  pithy  extracts  from  its 
great  literature.  Give  him  the  letters,  the  diaries,  ex- 
tracts from  the  laws,  records  of  business  transactions, 
ballads,  folk  lore,  anything  and  everything  that  will  bring 
him  near  to  the  throbbing  life  of  the  people  of  bygone 
days. 

None  of  this  is  meant  to  teach  that  the  learner  is  to 
discard  the  text-book  in  history.  He  should  have  a 
good  book  and  should  use  it  with  care  and  exactness. 
Such  a  scheme  as  the  above  should  be  clearly  outlined 
in  the  mind  of  the  teacher ;  one  main  item  at  a  time 
should  be  set  before  the  child  as  a  problem  to  be  solved ; 
with  his  mind  thus  definitely  directed  to  an  end,  he 
should  use  his  text-book  and  all  other  available  sources 
of  information  to  supply  the  details  which  will  establish 
the  point  that  is  being  sought.  But,  in  the  use  of  his- 
toric details,  the  learner  should  always  have  his  mind 
directed  to  some  central  element  which  the  more  minute 
data  are  employed  to  confirm.  "  In  history  everything 
depends  upon  turning  narrative  into  problems."  With 
this  point  neglected,  his  efforts  must  be  largely  aimless, 
his  knowledge  of  facts  fragmentary,  and  the  endeavor 
to  correlate  the  history  lessons  of  the  several  days  a 
failure. 


HISTORY.  277 

In  order  that  teachers  may  know  where  to  secure 
the  material  necessary  for  the  presentation  of  the  actual 
realities  in  history  (aside  from  those  furnished  incident- 
ally in  the  newspapers,  magazines,  etc.),  and  also  the 
guides  for  such  an  analytic  presentation  as  is  indicated 
above,  the  following  are  recommended  as  being  espe- 
cially helpful  :  "  American  History  told  by  Contempo- 
raries," by  Albert  Bushnell  Hart,  four  volumes,  pub- 
lished by  the  Macmillan  Company ;  "  American  History 
Leaflets,"  Hart  and  Channing,  published  by  A.  Lovell 
&  Co.,  New  York;  "Old  South  Leaflets,"  published 
by  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. ;  "  American  History  Studies," 
published  by  J.  H.  Miller,  Lincoln,  Neb.  For  the  gen- 
eral method,  "  Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  His- 
tory," by  Channing  and  Hart,  published  by  Ginn  &  Co. 

To  supply  the  teacher,  to  whom  the  above  aids  are 
not  immediately  available,  with  a  distinct  idea  of  the 
order  to  which  the  great  masses  of  events  in  American 
history  are  reducible,  the  following  outline  is  appended  : 

A  Brief  Outline  of  American  History. 

(All  division  of  history  into  epochs  or  periods  is  more 
or  less  arbitrary.  While  very  useful  in  helping  to  fix 
in  mind  the  salient  points  of  development,  there  is  dan- 
ger of  its  being  misleading,  if  it  is  used  without  caution. 
We  need  to  emphasize  the  essential  unity  of  all  history. 
Each  period  grows  out  of  the  preceding  ones,  and  its 
character  is  largely  determined  by  preceding  conditions.) 

I.   1492-1600.     Period  of   Discovery,  Exploration, 
and  Spanish  Conquest, 


278  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

II.   1600-1763.     The    Colonial    Period:    subdivides 
into  — 

1.  1600-1688.     Period  of  colonization. 

2.  1688-1750.     Period   of  colonial  growth    and 

development. 

3.  1750-1763.     The  final  struggle  between   the 

French  and  English  for  the  possession   of 

America. 

English  supremacy  established. 

III.  1763-1789.     The  Revolutionary  Period.     Again 

we  distinguish  — 

1.  1763-1775.     Development   of  the  causes  of 

the  Revolution. 

2.  1775-1783.     The  Revolutionary  War. 

3.  1783-1789.     The  critical  period,  —  need  for 

a  national  government ;  articles  of  confedera- 
tion ;  making  the  Constitution. 

IV.  1789-1899.     The  Constitutional  Period. 

1.  1789-1801.     Supremacy  of  the  Federalists,  — 

organization ;  rise  of  parties ;  fall  of  the 
Federalists. 

2.  1801-1815.     Jeffersonian  Democracy, — for- 

eign affairs  of  first  importance ;  struggle 
for  rights  of  neutrals ;  period  culminates 
in  War  of  1812. 

3.  1815-1845.     Thirty  years  of  peace,  —  chief 

interest  in  domestic  questions  :  tariff,  in- 
ternal improvements,  national  bank.  Time 
of  growth ;  westward  movement ;  new 
states ;  Jacksonian  type  of  Democracy. 
Slavery  controversy  is  developing. 


HISTORY.  279 

4.  1845-1861.     The  slavery  question  the  domi- 

nant issue. 

5.  1861-1865.     Civil  War. 

6.  1865-1899.     Reconstruction  and  reunion. 

Progress  along  many  lines. 

In  order  that  historical  facts  may  be  fully  understood 
and  impressed,  several  distinct  aids  should  be  brought 
into  service  by  the  teacher. 

Pictures. — For  children,  nothing  that  is  available  will 
do  more  to  arouse  interest,  aid  the  imagination  and 
understanding,  and  impress  facts,  than  good  pictures. 
These  may  be  pictures  of  sections  of  country,  towns, 
famous  buildings,  monuments,  important  events,  national 
flags,  arms  of  the  states  and  territories,  etc.,  or  of  lead- 
ing men  in  politics,  religion,  society,  war,  education,  etc. 
Collections  of  such  pictures  may  be  made  by  teachers 
with  but  little  expense,  if  they  are  only  on  the  alert  for 
them. 

Related  Readings.  —  These  will  reveal  the  inner  life  of 
individuals  and  communities  as  the  picture  does  the 
outer.  Historical  readers,  special  stories  from  history, 
historical  novels,  poems,  orations,  debates,  and  the  gen- 
eral literature  which  reveals  the  home  life,  religious  and 
social  atmosphere,  political  upheavals,  and  traits  of 
character  of  the  times,  may  all  be  turned  to  good 
account  if  used  as  side  lights  upon  the  simple  record  of 
the  text-book. 

Geography.  —  This  is  essential  to  an  understanding  of 
great  movements  in  history.  Whether  the  subject  is 
exploration,  colonization,  war,  or  any  other  important 


280  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

sectional  movement,  the  geography  must  accompany  it  to 
render  it  intelligible.  It  is  important  to  note  that  the 
maps  to  be  studied  must  be  true  to  the  times  under  dis- 
cussion. It  is  a  very  good  plan,  in  studying,  say,  a 
campaign  of  an  army,  to  have  a  skeleton  map  before  the 
class  and,  as  the  movements  are  studied  from  day  to  day, 
have  the  course  traced  upon  the  map.  The  physical,  as 
well  as  the  political,  features  of  a  country  must  at  no 
time  be  overlooked  when  we  are  considering  the  corre- 
lation of  history  and  geography. 

Reviews.  —  In  addition  to  the  material  aids  mentioned 
above,  it  seems  important  to  impress  the  need  of  reviews 
as  means  of  comprehending,  as  well  as  remembering, 
history.  The  topical  plan  of  recitation  should  especially 
characterize  the  review  ;  style  of  sentences,  arrangement 
of  matter,  and  choice  of  details  should  now  be  left  to 
the  pupil  to  determine.  Leading  questions  may  play  an 
important  part  in  the  advanced  lessons  in  history  ;  but  in 
the  topical  review  the  child  should  present  his  knowledge 
unaided.  Day  by  day  reviews  of  related  matter  should 
be  kept  up,  so  that  the  learner  may  thus  be  aided  to 
comprehend  the  advanced  items,  and  also  that  he  may 
be  able  to  strengthen  his  memory  by  help  of  the  rational 
associations. 

In  the  review,  which  is  given  as  a  test  of  knowledge, 
and  not  primarily  for  the  sake  of  impressing  a  series  of 
facts,  the  order  which  was  followed  in  the  original 
presentation  may  be  broken.  Items  may  be  called  for 
promiscuously.  But  in  the  presentation,  and  the  repeti- 
tion which  is  meant  to  fix  the  facts,  a  definite  order  should 
be  observed  until  the  series  is  grasped,  Every  proper 


HISTORY.  28l 

device  which  will  arouse  interest,  demand  the  use  of 
historic  knowledge,  and  stimulate  to  greater  mental  activ- 
ity, may  be  used  with  propriety  in  the  test  exercise. 

Philosophy  of  History. 

As  historical  facts  are  gathered,  opinions  concerning 
them  may  be  formed.  When  the  child  has  a  sufficient 
fund  of  historic  information,  it  is  wise  to  have  him  enter 
into  discussions  concerning  acts,  the  motives  and  character 
of  men,  the  current  and  probable  outcome  of  social  or 
political  measures,  etc.  Thus  he  will,  by  slow  degrees, 
become  advanced  in  his  mastery  of  the  philosophical 
phase  of  history.  He  will  learn  that  history  addresses 
itself  to  the  highest  thought  as  well  as  to  the  imagina- 
tion and  the  memory.  He  will  see  its  bearing  upon 
human  interests  in  many  avenues.  This  will  naturally 
open  the  way  to  and  kindle  an  interest  in  the  study  of 
civics,  ethics,  political  economy,  and  all  other  social 
sciences.  Of  course,  as  separate  sciences,  these  cannot 
be  pursued  in  the  public  schools ;  but  the  rudiments  of 
them  all  touch  the  life  of  the  individual  with  such  force 
and  directness  that  they  must  be  met  and  satisfactorily 
settled. 

But,  while  the  ability  to  philosophize  upon  historical 
facts  is  an  important  end  to  be  reached  in  teaching 
history,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  unless  it  rests 
upon  a  solid  grounding  of  facts,  it  is  useless.  "  Accord- 
ingly, the  main  thing  that  the  teacher  of  history  in  the 
primary  school  has  to  do,  and  largely  so  in  the  secondary 
school,  is  to  teach  facts."  Resting  in  these,  however,  is 


282  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

to  rob  the  subject  of  its  broadest  interests  and  its  best 
discipline. 

If  we  are  once  convinced  that  "  the  primary  necessity 
in  history  is  to  know  the  truth"  (facts),  we  can  safely 
gather  inspiration  for  our  larger  work  from  the  words  of 
Guizot :  — 

"  That  very  portion,  indeed,  which  we  are  accustomed  to  hear 
called  the  philosophy  of  history — which  consists  in  showing  the 
relation  of  events  with  each  other,  the  chain  which  connects  them, 
the  causes  and  effects  of  events  —  this  is  history  just  as  much  as 
the  description  of  battles  and  all  the  other  exterior  events  which  it 
recounts.  Facts  of  this  kind  are  undoubtedly  more  difficult  to 
unravel ;  the  historian  is  more  liable  to  deceive  himself  respecting 
them ;  it  requires  more  skill  to  place  them  distinctly  before  the 
reader ;  but  this  difficulty  does  not  alter  their  nature ;  they  still 
continue  not  a  whit  the  less,  for  all  this,  to  form  an  essential  part 
of  history." 

The  only  thing  for  the  teacher  to  remember  in  this 
connection  is,  as  Professor  Hinsdale  states  it,  that 
"  things  must  be  done  in  their  proper  time  and  accord- 
ing to  their  just  measure." 


LITERATURE.  283 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 
LITERATURE. 

WHILE  history  presents  to  us  a  record  of  the  deeds  of 
men,  literature  admits  us  to  the  inner  sanctuary  of  a  soul, 
and  there  spreads  before  us  its  life  of  thought  and  feel- 
ing. The  intimate  relation  between  these  two  subjects 
should  always  be  kept  before  the  teacher's  mind.  Each 
will  add  light  to  the  other.  Only  in  the  union  of  the  two 
can  we  approach  a  knowledge  of  man  in  his  entirety,  — 
the  individual  with  his  threefold  capacity  of  intellect, 
feeling,  and  will ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  society  of 
which  he  forms  a  part  and  which,  because  of  his  relation 
to  it,  makes  him  unlike  what  he  would  be  in  isolation. 

All  this  suggests  a  matter  of  great  moment  in  the 
teaching  of  these  subjects  ;  namely,  that  they  should 
be  closely  correlated.  One  cannot  understand  much 
more  than  the  surface  effects,  if  history  is  presented 
without  reference  to  the  inner  springs  of  men's  lives, 
such  as  are  portrayed  in  literature  ;  society  becomes  too 
much  like  an  impersonal  but  mighty  force,  pushing  on 
blindly  to  a  destiny,  if  it  is  considered  only  in  the  mass. 
On  the  other  hand  one  cannot  understand  the  motives 
which  actuated  great  literary  characters,  the  occasions 
which  brought  forth  their  epoch-making  works,  nor  the 
allusions  found  in  such  works,  unless  he  has  some 
acquaintance  with  the  history  of  the  times  and  places  in 
which  such  men  lived  and  wrote. 


284  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

Upon  this  last  subject  Professor  Painter  remarks,  in 
his  "Introduction  to  American  Literature,"  that 

"literature  is  influenced  or  determined  by  whatever  affects  the 
thought  and  feeling  of  a  people.  Among  the  most  potent  influ- 
ences that  determine  the  character  of  a  literature,  whether  taken 
in  a  broad  or  in  a  restricted  sense,  are  race,  epoch,  and  surround- 
ings. This  fact  should  be  well  borne  in  mind,  for  it  renders  a 
philosophy  of  literature  possible.  We  cannot  fully  understand 
any  literature,  nor  justly  estimate  it,  without  an  acquaintance  with 
the  national  traits  of  the  writers,  the  general  character  of  the  age 
in  which  they  lived,  and  the  physical  and  social  conditions  by 
which  they  were  surrounded." 

But,  confining  our  thought  for  the  present  within  the 
subject  itself,  we  may  ask,  How  shall  literature  be  taught  ? 
The  usual  process  of  the  schools  is  somewhat  as  follows  : 
A  book  on  "  Literature  "  is  taken  by  the  pupils  ;  from 
this  they  study  that  a  certain  man  was  born  at  a  given 
time  and  place,  that  he  lived  under  such  and  such 
circumstances,  that  when  he  had  reached  a  certain  age 
he  began  writing  and  eventually  produced  a  given  lot  of 
works  (the  titles  of  his  various  productions  are  here 
recited),  and,  in  most  cases,  that  he  died  at  a  specified 
time  and  place ;  finally,  they  commit  to  memory  and 
recite  certain  "  choice  extracts  "  or  "  gems  "  culled  from 
his  writings  by  the  compiler  of  the  text-book  on 
"  Literature." 

Now,  in  such  an  exercise  as  the  above,  it  is  possible 
that  not  all  the  errors  which  could  arise  have  been  made. 
Still,  it  is  certain  that  the  mass  of  errors  which  have 
been  made  is  sufficient  to  cause  one  to  reflect  with 
some  misgivings  upon  the  thoughtlessness  which  could 


LITERATURE.  285 

allow  them  in  the  name  of  teaching.  The  exercise 
opens  with  what  is  not  literature ;  it  requires  the  child 
to  commit  to  memory  a  list  of  statements  about  a  man 
concerning  whom  he  knows  but  little,  and  in  whom 
he  has  such  small  interest  that  he  cares  less.  This  is 
followed  by  his  committing  a  list  of  titles,  either  of  books 
or  shorter  productions  ;  with  this  task  accomplished,  the 
child  is  deceived  into  the  belief  that  he  knows  the  things 
whose  names  he  can  recite  in  order.  Finally,  a  few 
dissociated  fragments  are  torn  from  their  setting  in  the 
finished  productions  and  given  to  the  child  as  specimens 
of  what  the  author  could  produce.  In  this  act  we  rob  the 
child  of  the  opportunity  of  communing  with  a  great  liter- 
ary soul ;  we  expect  him  to  get  a  just  appreciation  of  a 
man  through  an  acquaintance  with  a  few  scraps  of  his 
producing ;  and  we  do  much  toward  preventing  in  the 
child  a  habit  of  doing  things  "decently  and  in  order." 

No  part  of  the  above  exercise  is  entirely  worthless. 
But  in  this  lies  the  strongest  ground  of  our  criticism. 
If  it  were  wholly  without  value,  it  would  be  less  likely 
to  commend  itself  to  anyone.  All  of  it  is  worth  know- 
ing. Why,  then,  is  it  so  objectionable  ?  First,  because 
most  of  it  is  not  literature;  and,  second,  because  the 
little'of  it  that  is  literature  is  badly  treated. 

Having  presented  the  subject  negatively  and  stated 
what  not  to  do  in  teaching  literature,  we  have  next  to 
consider  what  steps  should  be  taken  in  order  that  this 
most  important  subject  may  be  rationally  apprehended 
and  enjoyed.  In  this  subject,  more  than  in  many  others, 
we  need  to  give  the  child  an  intense  longing  for  more 
and  better  things  than  he  has  yet  compassed,  Many 


286  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

subjects  present  an  element  of  completeness  in  their 
nature,  and  serve  as  specific  guides  to  an  individual  in 
certain  lines  of  activity ;  but  literature  does  neither  of 
these,  —  it  is  unending  and  it  must  be  constantly  imbibed. 
Whoever  would  succeed  in  teaching  this  subject  must  be 
able  to  make  of  the  learner  one  who,  with  proper  dis- 
crimination, "  is  curious  to  learn,  and  is  never  satis- 
fied." 

As  a  means  toward  the  accomplishment  of  this  end, 
we  must  introduce  the  child  to  literature  itself,  and  not 
to  biography  or  masses  of  minced  statements  about 
literature.  Accordingly  we  should  take  well-chosen 
productions,  suited  to  the  child's  maturity  and  interests, 
and  present  these  at  first  hand.  At  this  stage  in  the 
work,  most  of  the  reading  should  be  done  by  the  teacher. 
Coupled  with  it  there  should  come  running  comments, 
employed  to  reveal  the  beauty,  or  other  feature  of  merit, 
in  the  production. 

It  should  be  repeated  in  this  connection  that,  for  the 
best  results  to  be  secured,  the  teacher  should  be  a  clear, 
easy,  and  sympathetic  reader,  —  one  whose  reading  will 
be  enjoyed  by  the  children,  and  will  reveal  to  them  the 
sense  and  sentiment  of  what  is  presented. 

Very  much  more  should  be  read  than  the  child  is  ex- 
pected to  learn  in  detail.  The  aim  of  this  is  to  get  the 
literary  form  to  sink  into  his  very  being.  We  wish  the 
child  to  get  so  thoroughly  saturated  with  the  good  things 
in  literature  that  he  will  become  accustomed  to  such  excel- 
lence, will  feel  its  merits  even  though  he  cannot  tell  why, 
and  will  be  dissatisfied  with  the  things  that  do  not 
contain  real  merit. 


LITERATURE.  28/ 

Critical  analysis  is  to  form  no  part  of  the  work  at  this 
time.  There  should  be  no  attempt  at  analysis  beyond 
the  very  meager  amount  which  may  be  necessary  as  a 
means  of  grasping  the  production  in  its  largeness.  The 
time  for  a  learner  to  think  all  the  elements  necessary  for 
the  comprehension  of  a  selection  is  when  he  wishes  to 
know  what  the  elements  are  that  can  appeal  to  him  with 
such  mysterious  force.  Just  now  the  teacher's  aim  should 
be  to  arouse  all  the  feelings  of  the  learner,  with  but 
incidental  appeals  to  his  judgment,  that  will  enable  him 
to  appreciate  the  excellences  of  literature. 

This  result  cannot  be  accomplished  by  setting  a  child 
the  task  of  parsing  or  analyzing  a  literary  masterpiece  ; 
neither  can  it  be  done  by  hacking  it  to  pieces  in  the  at- 
tempt to  determine  its  meter,  figures  of  speech,  etymology 
of  words,  historical  or  other  allusions.  Just  as  one  grows 
to  love  a  person  with  a  deeper  and  more  abiding  love, 
not  by  analyzing  out  all  his  elements,  but  by  living  with 
him  and  coming  into  vital  touch  with  his  largeness  of 
soul,  so  does  he  learn  to  appreciate  and  enjoy  litera- 
ture, —  by  living  with  it,  by  having  his  entire  being 
filled  with  it,  and  by  having  a  great  soul  revealed  to 
him  through  it. 

To  accomplish  this  end,  he  must  be  kept  in  constant 
touch  with  the  good  things  in  literature  that  are  suited  to 
his  nature.  He  should  read  them ;  very  frequently  he 
should  hear  them ;  and  it  will  add  greatly  to  the  result 
if  he  is  made  to  commit  and  use  very  many  of  them. 
The  teacher  should  aim  to  keep  the  child  enveloped  in 
good  literature,  though  he  must  not  be  overwhelmed 
with  it  as  if  there  were  nothing  else  in  life  worthy  of 


288  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

his  attention.  And  let  us  remember  that  a  passion  for 
a  style  may  be  developed  even  when  elements  in  the 
expression  are  uncomprehended. 

But,  though  such  reading  as  this  should  be  kept  up 
throughout  his  school  life,  there  comes  a  time  when  the 
learner  must  begin  critical  analysis,  in  order  that  he  may 
add  to  the  mere  appreciation  of  things  a  comprehension 
of  them.  This  will  not  only  enlighten  him  more  fully, 
but  it  will  enhance  his  appreciation,  and  also  fix  standards 
of  excellence  which  will  make  him  able  to  lead  others. 
How,  then,  shall  the  teacher  proceed  when  this  stage  of 
the  work  is  reached  ? 

In  the  first  place,  the  meaning  of  the  selection  in  its 
entirety  should  be  discussed.  If  the  entire  selection  is 
too  much  for  a  single  treatment,  then  a  part  should  be 
taken  that  is  complete  enough  to  present  a  finished  pic- 
ture. In  order  that  this  may  be  done,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  learner  read  the  production  in  its  unity  first. 
The  comprehension  of  the  parts  is  impossible  unless  they 
are  considered  in  their  relation  to  the  main  idea.  "  It 
should  be  shown  how,  in  all  artistic  works  of  excellence, 
one  main  idea  rules  and  sways ;  that  there  is  one  great 
center  towards  which  all  the  parts  bend  and  converge ; 
that  no  part  is  really  isolated  and  independent,  however 
much  it  may  seem  so,  but  subserves  that  main  idea." 

As  one  means  of  correlating  the  composition  work 
and  the  literature,  it  would  be  well  to  require  the  learner 
to  write  an  abstract  of  the  prose  selection  or  the  poetry 
which  is  under  consideration.  This  will  reveal  his  faith- 
fulness in  study,  test  his  comprehension  of  the  selection, 
and  serve  as  an  exercise  in  the  use  of  English.  An- 


LITERATURE.  289 

other  helpful  device  is  to  encourage  all  learners  to  ask 
questions  about  any  passages  they  do  not  understand  in 
their  preparation. 

Secondly,  the  selection  should  be  considered  in  its 
parts,  —  the  characters  represented,  the  historical  details, 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  times  which  are  por- 
trayed, the  various  allusions,  the  meanings  of  specially 
difficult  terms,  the  pictures  of  single  paragraphs  or 
stanzas,  etc.  Comparison  should  now  be  made  with 
other  similar  productions.  The  detailed  comprehension 
of  allusions  and  statements  of  other  kinds  will  require 
knowledge  of  the  writer  ;  experiences  in  his  life  may 
have  served  as  the  ground  of  many  expressions.  This 
will  serve  as  a  sufficient  reason  for  studying  biography 
at  this  time. 

But  the  child's  interest  in  the  writer  should  grow  out 
of  his  admiration  for  the  writing.  The  principal  element 
under  consideration  at  this  time  is  literature,  and  what- 
ever needs  to  be  brought  to  the  attention  for  the  purpose 
of  casting  light  upon  the  literature  should  be  so  used; 
but  it  should  always  be  regarded  as  subordinate  to  the 
literature  itself.  Furthermore,  when  there  are  historic 
references  in  the  literary  production  that  is  being  studied, 
these  should  serve  as  the  occasion  of  correlating  with 
the  literature  as  much  of  history  as  may  be  required  for 
fixing  the  time  and  the  national  characteristics.  This 
would  seem  to  indicate  the  wisdom  of  selecting,  as  the 
matter  of  literary  study,  such  selections  as  will  fit  into 
the  period  of  history  that  is  being  studied.  The  liter- 
ature can  thus  bend  to  the  history  better  than  the 
history  can  bend  to  it,  because  of  the  more  systematic 


2QO  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

and  necessary  order  which  it  is  requisite  to  observe  in 
treating  the  several  parts  of  history. 

In  the  third  place,  the  selection  should  be  analyzed 
from  a  rhetorical  and  a  grammatical  point  of  view.  The 
metrical  structure,  figures  of  speech,  grammatical  analy- 
sis of  common  parts,  parsing  of  words  (especially  when 
used  with  poetic  license),  study  of  the  derivation  and 
origin  of  words  —  these,  and  other  processes  which  will 
give  added  mastery  to  the  learner,  should  all  receive 
attention. 

This  does  not  mean  that  literary  masterpieces  are  to 
be  used  for  exercises  in  grammatical  analysis  and  parsing, 
but  it  does  mean  that  the  learner's  power  of  analysis  and 
parsing  should  be  turned  to  account  in  aiding  him  to 
comprehend  the  masterpiece.  Neither  should  the  litera- 
ture be  treated  as  a  means  of  applying  the  child's 
knowledge  of  rhetoric  and  prosody.  What  he  knows  of 
these  subjects  should  here  be  used  to  bring  his  literature 
more  completely  within  his  grasp.  As  one  has  said : 
"  Prosody  is  in  poetry  pretty  much  what  thorough  bass 
is  in  music.  The  real  student  will  not  be  content  to 
hear  sweet  sounds  without  inquiring  somewhat  as  to  how 
they  are  produced.  The  different  measures  in  poetry 
are  like  the  various  musical  instruments.  Poetry,  too, 
has  its  '  trumpet's  loud  clangour ',  its  flute  for  dying 
lovers,  and  '  warbling  lute '  to  whisper  their  dirge  ;  its 
'  sharp  violins ',  its  organ  notes  that  '  inspire  holy  love 
and  wing  their  heavenly  ways '  up  to  the  choirs  of 
heaven." 

When  work  like  the  above  has  been  done  for  some 
time,  we  may  safely  venture  in  a  modest  way  upon  what 


LITERATURE. 

may  be  called  literary  criticism.  The  learner  has  now 
reached  maturity  enough  to  be  able  to  understand  what 
constitute  the  features  of  merit  in  literary  works.  These 
should  be  pointed  out,  his  attention  strongly  directed  to 
them,  and  he  be  urged  to  imitate  them  in  his  own  pro- 
ductions. Such  criticism  will  have  a  positive  effect  in 
improving  the  learner's  appreciation  of  literature  and  his 
own  use  of  language ;  the  negative  criticism  of  mere 
fault-finding  can  do  neither.  A  learner  should  never  have 
his  power  of  literary  appreciation  blunted  by  being  set  to 
work,  as  with  microscopic  vision,  to  search  out  the  flaws 
in  the  workmanship  of  the  great  masters. 

Such  complete  analysis  of  a  piece  of  literature  should 
be  followed  by  a  reconstructive  act.  The  selection 
should  now  be  reread  in  its  entirety ;  the  increased  light 
cast  by  the  study  upon  the  parts  which  were  originally 
dark  will  cause  the  whole  to  stand  out  as  in  the  brilliance 
of  the  noon-day  sun.  A  careful  paraphrase  may  now  be 
required,  and  be  compared  with  the  earlier  one  produced 
in  his  preparation.  Selections  worthy  of  such  study 
should  be  largely  committed  to  memory  and  frequently 
recited.  The  things  that  will  do  most  to  create  a  literary 
taste  and,  at  the  same  time,  establish  a  style  of  original 
expression,  are  wide  reading,  extensive  committing  to 
memory,  and  reciting. 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 
GEOGRAPHY. 

MANY  of  the  terms  used  in  discussing  methods  of 
teaching  geography  have  been  employed  in  such  a  vari- 
ety of  senses  by  different  writers  that  it  seems  necessary 
to  state  at  the  outset  the  meaning  to  be  attached  to 
each  in  the  following  pages. 

Introductory  Geography  is  that  portion  of  geography  in 
the  teaching  of  which  we  aim  to  give  the  learner  correct 
geographical  general  notions,  such  as  island,  moun- 
tain, bay,  lake,  state,  county,  distance,  direction,  snow, 
hail,  etc. 

Systematic  Geography  is  that  portion  of  geography  in 
the  teaching  of  which  we  aim  to  acquaint  the  learner 
with  the  details  of  the  great  geographical  unit,  the  earth. 
In  this  branch  of  the  subject  location  plays  a  very  im- 
portant part ;  and  the  things  which  are  here  taken  up 
for  study  are  viewed,  not  as  typical  of  a  class,  but  as 
worthy  of  study  in  their  own  right. 

Home  Geograpliy,  or  Local  Geography,  is  that  portion 
of  systematic  geography  which  treats  of  the  country 
within  the  limits  of  the  learner's  home  state.  This  limit 
is  an  arbitrary  one,  some  writers  including  within  the 
term  only  the  geography  of  the  county,  while  others 
extend  the  scope  of  home  geography  to  the  limit  of  the 
state. 

Foreign  Geography  is  that  portion  of  systematic  geog- 


GEOGRAPHY.  293 

raphy  which  treats  of  the  country  that  lies  beyond  the 
limit  of  the  state  in  which  the  child  resides. 

It  must  be  evident,  from  what  has  been  said,  that  the 
same  truths  can  be  taught  in  introductory  geography  by 
a  teacher  working  in  America  and  one  working  in  Aus- 
tralia, provided  the  two  sections  of  the  country  furnish 
similar  examples  of  the  things  to  be  taught.  But  local 
geography  will  be  one  thing  for  the  teacher  in  America 
and  quite  a  different  thing  for  the  teacher  in  Australia, 
—  one  thing  for  the  teacher  in  Pennsylvania  and  a  dif- 
ferent thing  for  the  teacher  in  New  York. 

A  little  reflection  will  make  it  plain  that  the  inductive 
method  of  procedure  is  applicable  to  introductory  geog- 
raphy, but  not  to  systematic  geography.  In  the  latter 
the  only  methods  of  teaching  that  have  significance  are 
the  analytic  and  synthetic  methods.  This  is  true  because 
induction  applies  only  where  generalizations  (general  no- 
tions) are  involved.  These  generalizations  appear  in 
introductory  geography.  Analysis  and  synthesis  com- 
plete the  processes  of  thought,  or  study,  when  the  sub- 
ject of  study  embraces  only  individual  things  and  their 
parts.  The  earth  is  one  great  unit,  and  this  thing,  with 
all  its  peculiarities  of  shape,  size,  distribution  of  parts, 
function  of  parts,  etc.,  is  the  thing  with  which  system- 
atic geography  has  to  do. 

It  now  seems  clear  that  the  maxim,  "  Proceed  from 
the  known  to  the  related  unknown,"  cannot  reasonably 
be  quoted  in  support  of  the  position  that  the  study  of 
home  geography  is  a  suitable  preparation  for  the  study 
of  foreign  geography ;  but  that  it  signifies  much  that  is 
helpful  when  it  is  quoted  in  defense  of  the  practice  of 


294  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

studying  introductory  geography  as  a  means  of  preparing 
the  learner  for  a  course  in  systematic  geography,  both 
home  and  foreign.  If  this  is  not  at  once  clear,  the  fol- 
lowing special  instance  may  make  it  so.  Let  the  child 
become  acquainted  with  the  names,  locations,  and  func- 
tions (items  emphasized  in  home  geography)  of  all  the 
rivers,  mountains,  and  cities  of  his  home  state.  To 
what  extent  will  this  knowledge  aid  him  in  becoming 
familiar  with  the  names,  locations,  and  functions  of  the 
rivers,  mountains,  and  cities  of  any  other  state  or  country 
on  the  globe  ?  On  the  other  hand,  familiarize  him  with 
the  significance  of  river,  mountain,  and  city  (items  em- 
phasized in  introductory  geography),  and  you  thereby 
render  him  capable  of  understanding  whatever  he  hears 
or  reads  about  such  geographical  elements,  no  matter 
where  they  may  be  located. 

To  have  a  child  learn  what  a  river  is  before  we  ask 
him  to  learn  the  name,  location,  size,  and  significance  of 
the  Delaware  River  ;  to  have  a  child  know  what  island 
means  before  we  give  him  the  details  of  Cuba ;  to  have 
a  child,  by  some  rational  process,  come  to  know  what  the 
word  mountain  signifies  before  we  aim  to  familiarize  him 
with  the  various  items  of  interest  connected  with  Mt. 
Washington,  —  this  is  giving  a  rational  application  to  the 
maxim. 

Introductory  Geography. 

In  this  treatment  we  shall  not  aim  at  being  exhaust- 
ive, but  merely  at  being  suggestive  in  regard  to  the 
matter  to  be  taught.  It  will  be  assumed  throughout 
that  the  teacher  is  to  get  the  geographical  knowledge 


GEOGRAPHY.  295 

from  other  sources  than  this  work.  The  main  purpose 
here  is  to  set  forth  the  mode  of  procedure  in  teaching 
geography,  and  to  assign  reasons  for  the  same.  Since 
real  things  in  the  material  world  about  us  constitute  the 
actual  reality  of  introductory  geography,  the  place  to  go 
for  our  material  is  not  to  a  book  from  which  we  can 
study  set  definitions,  but  to  the  actual  things.  Our 
teaching  is  to  be  objective,  and  definitions  (word  mean- 
ings) are  to  constitute  the  chief  part  of  the  results  of 
our  study.  A  book  may  be  of  great  service  to  the 
teacher  if  it  is  used  as  a  guide  to  the  things  to  be  sought 
for  in  nature ;  but  there  should  be  no  book  in  the  hands 
of  the  pupils  at  this  stage  of  the  work.  To  many  this 
may  not  seem  like  studying  geography,  but  merely  like 
getting  ready  to  study  it.  If  the  study  of  geography  is 
necessarily  associated  in  their  minds  with  the  use  of  a 
book,  then,  to  them,  it  will  be  better  to  call  this  work 
a  preparation  for  geography,  because  it  is  a  process  of 
preparation  for  the  intelligent  use  of  a  book. 

Subjects  Treated. 

i .  Words  needed  in  description  (broad,  deep,  flat,  high, 
low,  rough,  etc.)  and  in  location  (across,  around,  beyond, 
between,  on,  over,  etc.). 

At  the  very  outset  we  find  ourselves  confronted  with 
the  necessity  of  employing  words  in  a  particular  sense 
that  have  a  variety  of  meanings  attached  to  them. 
These  words  should  be  taught,  not  through  definitions, 
but  through  use. 

Illustration.  —  Direct  the  child  to  "  tie  a  string  around 


2Q6  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

his  waist";  "move  the  things  in  the  room  around"  \ 
"  turn  around!' 

He  may  not  be  able  to  tell  the  different  meanings 
attached  to  the  word  "  around,"  but  he  shows  that  he 
knows  them  by  the  prompt  manner  in  which  he  performs 
the  given  direction.  To  form  a  definition  of  a  word  is 
a  difficult  process,  and  here  our  aim  is  not  to  give  a 
language  exercise,  but  to  acquaint  the  child  with  a  few 
essential  word-meanings  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  him 
to  use  them  in  the  study  of  geography.  Verbal  defini- 
tions may  be  committed  to  memory  and  the  meanings 
of  the  words  defined  utterly  escape  the  learner ;  hence 
the  direction  to  teach  these  words  and  their  meanings 
through  use.  "  The  water  flows  around  that  rock." 
"The  stream  flows  around  my  farm."  "  I  have  just 
been  walking  around"  All  these  are  expressions  in 
common  use,  and  are  such  as  the  child  will  be  called 
upon  to  interpret.  It  is,  then,  our  business  to  impress 
upon  him  the  uses  to  be  met  in  his  study  of  geography. 

2.  Ideas  of  direction.  Both  the  relative  directions  (as 
right,  left,  front,  etc.),  which  depend  upon  the  positions 
of  our  body,  and  the  absolute  directions  (as  north,  south, 
northwest,  etc.),  which  are  fixed  upon  the  earth  and  are 
not  altered  by  shifting  the  position  of  the  body,  must  be 
taught,  and  should  be  carefully  compared. 

To  impress  these  ideas  of  direction,  some  definite  line, 
as  the  north  line,  should  be  fixed,  say,  by  marking  it 
upon  the  schoolroom  floor  in  such  a  way  that  it  can 
remain  there  permanently.  The  exact  direction  of  this 
line  may  be  determined  by  the  use  of  a  compass,  and, 
in  addition,  children  should  be  taught  to  determine  the 


GEOGRAPHY. 


cardinal  points  and  others  by  reference  to  the  heav- 
ens. 

With  these  aids  at  the  command  of  the  children,  they 
should  be  instructed  to  note  directions  of  shadows,  wind, 
rain,  etc.  Lead  them  to  observe  the  direction  from 
which  the  wind  blows  and  the  direction  to  which  it 
blows.  Have  them  tell  what  was  seen  in  passing  to 
and  from  school,  the  store,  the  post  office  ;  the  things 
on  the  north  side  of  the  road,  the  south,  east,  or  west 
side,  etc. 

In  order  to  teach  them  to  compare  the  relative  with 
the  absolute  directions,  a  child  may  be  directed  to  walk 
down  the  room,  say  to  the  west,  and  to  name  the  per- 
sons seated  on  his  right,  north  of  him  ;  on  his  left,  south 
of  him.  Then,  as  he  retraces  his  steps,  have  him  name 
the  persons  now  to  his  right,  north  of  him  ;  to  his  left, 
south  of  him. 

Impress  these  lessons  in  direction,  and  drill  the  chil- 
dren in  them  so  carefully  that  when  they  come  to  the 
study  of  maps,  they  will  readily  understand  that  these 
maps  are  simply  devices  for  representing  the  things 
which  they  have  been  considering  in  their  reality.  Note 
the  direction  of  the  apparent  movements  of  the  sun,  the 
direction  of  the  roads,  the  course  of  streams,  etc. 

3.  Distance.  In  this  we  should  aim  at  making  the 
child  understand,  through  use,  what  distance  is  ;  and 
we  should  also  develop  within  him  skill  in  estimating 
distances. 

Have  the  child  measure  things  in  various  units,  — 
inches,  feet,  or  rods  ;  then  have  him  estimate  lengths 
of  other  things,  expressed  in  the  various  units,  and  after- 


298  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

wards  measure,  to  test  the  correctness  of  his  estimates, 
Measure  the  circumference  and  the  diameter  of  circular 
objects  and  of  spherical  objects.  Note  the  relative 
lengths  of  the  parts  in  each.  Measure  and  estimate 
distances  in  horizontal  planes,  in  vertical  planes,  etc. 
Estimate  distances  between  familiar  places  from  memory. 

Let  it  be  remembered  that  the  two  things  which  must 
be  known  in  order  that  we  may  locate  a  point  are  its 
direction  and  its  distance  from  some  given  point.  Teach 
children  the  difference  between  locating  points  with  ref- 
erence to  each  other,  and  locating  a  surface  within 
another  surface.  The  latter  is  the  more  important  for 
purposes  of  geography. 

4.  Land  and  water  forms.  First,  let  these  be  learned 
as  far  as  possible  by  having  the  child  describe  the  forms 
he  can  observe.  The  stream  in  the  neighborhood  may 
be  used,  or  any  low  portion  of  the  school  ground  may 
serve  after  a  rain.  Second,  to  supplement  his  observa- 
tion we  may  use  the  molding  board,  or  good  pictures. 
These  are  put  second  for  the  same  reason  that  the  use 
of  a  book  is  put  after  such  a  course  as  this,  in  intro- 
ductory geography,  —  we  want  the  child  to  learn  from 
the  outset,  and  to  remember  always  that  geography  is 
about  the  actual  things  of  this  actual  world.  We  do 
not  wish  him  to  study  things  about  a  molding  board,  or 
about  a  picture,  until  we  have  made  it  practically  sure 
that  he  will  consider  these  only  as  representatives. 
Third,  we  may  appeal  to  the  imagination  of  the  child  to 
picture,  subject  to  our  verbal  description,  what  we  cannot 
present  to  him  either  in  reality  or  through  the  aids  men- 
tioned above.  This  imaginative  work  can  be  success- 


GEOGRAPHY.  299 

fully  done  at  this  stage,  because  the  child  has  a  fund  of 
correct  ideas  to  work  upon,  which  have  been  gained  at 
first  hand  from  things. 

Much  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  child's  verbal 
description  of  the  land  or  water  forms  which  he  is  able  to 
observe.  This  is  the  most  direct  means  of  learning 
whether  or  not  his  attention  is  centered  upon  the 
essential  or  the  non-essential  elements  in  the  object. 
The  most  vital  element  in  a  thing  is  not  necessarily  the 
one  that  will  impress  a  child ;  but  the  most  striking  one 
will,  and  often  that  is  the  one  of  no  special  significance. 
Another  means  of  discovering  the  child's  thought  and 
observation  is  by  having  him  make  drawings ;  maps  may 
be  introduced  later.  Such  drawings  should  rarely,  if 
ever,  be  made  by  copying  pictures,  at  this  stage  of  the 
work  ;  they  should  be  made  from  the  objects  themselves. 

5.  Climate.  Under  this  heading  is  included  the  sub- 
jects of  rain,  snow,  hail,  dew,  fog,  temperature,  clouds, 
etc.  It  is  not  meant  that  at  this  early  stage  in  a  child's 
school  life  we  should  give  to  him  an  extended  course  in 
physical  geography,  but  that  we  should  aim  to  make 
intelligible  to  him  in  a  plain  and  simple  manner  some  of 
the  primary  truths  concerning  these  facts  of  his  daily 
experience.  Scientific  definitions  should  form  no  part 
of  the  subject  matter  at  this  time.  They  have  their 
place  in  the  order  of  learning,  but  it  is  much  farther  on. 
Now  we  want  simply  to  make  a  few  of  the  easy,  but 
significant,  observations  upon  things.  Concerning  rain, 
we  might  have  children  try  to  answer  from  their  own 
observations  questions  like  the  following  :  Why  does  the 
rain  fall  now  in  one  direction,  and  at  another  time  in  a 


3OO  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

different  direction  ?  What  land  and  water  forms  can  be 
found  on  the  ground  after  a  rain  ?  Why  does  not  water 
run  down  hill  in  a  straight  line  as  it  does  down  a 
gutter  ?  About  snow  we  might  ask,  Are  all  snowflakes 
alike  ?  Why  does  snow  last  longer  in  some  places  than 
in  others  ?  In  what  different  forms  have  you  seen 
water,  etc.  ?  Hail,  dew,  and  fog  should  be  treated  in 
like  manner. 

Changes  of  temperature  from  day  to  day  should  be 
observed  and  recorded.  With  this  should  be  taught  the 
use  of  the  thermometer  and  the  reading  of  it.  The 
attention  of  the  children  should  be  called  to  the  shifting 
of  the  clouds  from  time  to  time.  The  distance  of  the 
clouds  above  the  earth,  their  varying  accumulations, 
and  the  direction  of  their  movements  should  form  a 
part  of  this  study. 

6.  Soil.  In  this  we  should  study  the  different  kinds 
of  soil,  noting  how  they  feel  when  rubbed  between  the 
fingers,  the  kinds  of  plants  that  will  grow  in  each,  etc. 
This  will  lead  to  a  very  interesting  study  of  plants, 
fruits,  flowers,  etc. 

In  order  to  make  these  studies  interesting,  at  the 
same  time  that  they  are  being  made  profitable,  we 
might  bring  into  the  schoolroom  a  large  assortment  of 
suitable  vessels  to  be  used  in  cultivating  a  great  variety 
of  plants.  These  plants  should  be  made  subjects  of  study 
during  their  various  stages  of  growth,  —  the  germination 
of  seeds,  the  breaking  forth  from  earth,  the  formation 
of  leaves  upon  the  main  stalk,  etc.  An  almost  endless 
variety  of  devices  will  be  thought  of  by  those  who 
interest  themselves  in  such  teaching,  and  this  will  help 


GEOGRAPHY.  3OI 

very  materially  in  solving  the  problem  of  school  decora- 
tions, and  the  other  problem  of  getting  children  inter- 
ested in  school  work. 

7.  Record  of  observations.     In  order  to  impress  most 
firmly  upon  children  the  habit  of  regarding  this  earth  as 
the  subject  of   study  in   geography,  it  is  well  to  have 
each  member  of  the  class  keep  a  daily  record  of  observa- 
tions. 

Suggested  plan :  Note  the  date,  time  of  day,  weather, 
direction  and  approximate  force  of  the  wind,  tempera- 
ture, kinds  of  clouds,  and  their  position. 

When  pupils  have  become  proficient  in  keeping  a 
record  of  such  observations,  it  is  an  easy  step  to  add  a 
definite  hour  of  the  day  when  they  shall  note  the  direc- 
tion of  the  sunlight,  as  measured  from  some  fixed  object. 
These  observations,  kept  up  for  some  time,  will  impress 
them  with  the  changing  positions  of  the  sun  from  sea- 
son to  season  as  nothing  else  will. 

8.  Animals.     First  study  the  domestic  animals  with 
which  the  children  have  some  acquaintance.     Have  them 
accurately  described.     Call    especial  attention  to  their 
habits  —  what  they  eat  and  how;    their  movements  in 
lying  down  and  in  getting  up  ;   how  they  move  in  walk- 
ing, in  running,  in  trotting ;    their    positions   in    sleep ; 
their  manner  of  caring  for  the   young,  etc.     In  all  of 
these  matters  do  not  tell  the  children  much,  but  put 
them  in  the  way  of  finding  out. 

Have  the  domestic  animals  classified,  and  make  lists 
of  those  that  chew  cud,  those  that  have  cloven  hoofs, 
those  that  eat  flesh,  those  whose  flesh  is  used  for  food 
of  man,  those  that  furnish  man  food  aside  from  their 


302  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

own  flesh.  Which  animals  furnish  beef,  pork,  veal, 
mutton,  etc.  ? 

Besides  considering  the  domestic  animals  which  are 
available  for  study  at  their  homes,  teach  them  the  wild 
animals  of  the  vicinity.  As  they  study  the  physical 
structure  of  animals,  have  the  pupils  find  where  the  dif- 
ferent animals  live,  —  in  the  woods,  in  the  ground,  in 
barns  and  houses,  etc.  Find  out  how  they  build  their 
homes,  of  what  use  they  are  to  man,  of  what  injury  to 
man,  etc. 

This  study  of  animals  should  include  the  study  of 
birds  and  of  reptiles.  All  this  work,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, will  be  of  a  very  elementary  character,  but  it  will 
do  much  to  prepare  the  child  for  a  rational  study  of  sys- 
tematic geography,  in  connection  with  which  he  will 
study  the  animal  life  peculiar  to  each  country  con- 
sidered, and  in  a  more  exhaustive  manner. 

9.  Occupations.  This  opens  up  another  wide  field  of 
interesting  matter,  which  can  be  made  to  do  service  in 
preparing  a  child  to  go  through  the  world  taking  knowl- 
edge of  his  surroundings.  He  will,  thereby,  become  a 
person  with  much  information  and  with  varied  interests. 
The  most  common  occupations  of  the  neighborhood  will 
furnish  much  that  is  not  known  and  that  is  worthy  of 
being  known. 

Have  pupils  give  the  names  of  occupations,  the  names 
given  to  persons  engaged  in  them,  the  tools,  materials, 
and  products.  Let  those  who  have  seen  the  work  done 
describe  the  manner  of  doing  it.  If  there  are  factories  in 
the  neighborhood  where  common  things,  such  as  baskets, 
clothespins,  bottles,  or  tacks  are  made,  have  such  places 


GEOGRAPHY.  303 

visited  and  the  processes  studied  and  described.  Where 
the  articles  are  small  enough  to  permit  it,  a  very  good 
plan  is  to  make  collections  of  manufactured  articles, 
getting  specimens  in  all  the  different  stages  of  manu- 
facture. 

Have  them  study  the  work  necessary  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  various  food  products,  —  flour,  butter,  cheese,  etc. 

This  study  of  occupations  should  form  a  prominent 
part  of  the  entire  course  in  geography,  because,  as  the 
various  races  and  nations  of  men  are  studied,  the  occupa- 
tions peculiar  to  each  will  be  necessary,  in  order  that  we 
may  understand  the  service  of  the  people  to  the  rest  of 
mankind. 

The  order  in  which  the  above  items  should  be  taught 
is  a  matter  that  will  doubtless  be  questioned  by  every 
earnest  teacher  of  the  subject.  There  is  no  necessary 
order,  growing  out  of  the  rational  relation  of  these  items 
to  each  other,  excepting  that  in  a  few  instances  we  find 
that  the  study  of  one  is  made  possible  only  when  the 
learner  already  possesses  a  knowledge  of  another.  As 
an  instance  of  this  we  may  mention  that  before  the  child 
can  answer  the  question,  Why  does  the  rain  fall  in  a  cer- 
tain direction  ?  he  must  know  what  direction  is,  and  the 
names  to  give  to  the  different  directions. 

The  chief  things  that  determine  the  order  of  these 
topics  are  the  interests  of  the  class,  the  time  of  year,  and 
the  kind  of  day.  The  teacher  can  do  much  toward  deter- 
mining what  shall  be  the  dominant  interest  of  a  class,  by 
the  choice  of  subjects  in  language,  reading,  and  other 
classes.  To  plan  for  the  study  of  snow  in  June,  or  of 
rain  in  the  midst  of  days  of  drought,  would  be  a  viola- 


304  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

tion  of  all  rational  method  too  apparent  to  need  warning. 
Perhaps  it  cannot  be  too  carefully  urged  that  a  thing 
should  be  studied,  when  possible,  before  the  representative 
of  it  is  substituted. 

10.  Maps.  Before  pupils  are  prepared  to  use  a  book, 
which  forms  an  essential  part  of  their  later  study  in 
geography,  they  must  be  taught  to  understand  maps  and 
should  be  taught  to  draw  them.  Concerning  the  inter- 
pretation of  maps,  much  confusion  is  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  mind  of  the  child  because  the  teacher  has  a  mis- 
taken idea  that,  if  a  child  can  understand  a  common 
picture,  he  can,  therefore,  understand  a  map.  The 
difference,  however,  between  a  picture  and  a  map  is  just 
as  striking  as  the  difference  between  a  picture  of  an 
object  and  the  word  which  is  the  name  of  the  object. 
The  lines  of  a  good  picture  are  arranged  in  two  dimen- 
sions to  look  as  much  as  possible  like  they  do  in  the  real 
object,  which  has  three  dimensions.  From  seeing  a 
picture  a  child  can  recognize  the  reality  which  the 
picture  represents  ;  or,  from  knowing  the  object,  he  can 
immediately  know  its  picture  by  looking  at  it.  Not  so 
with  a  map.  A  dot  has  no  resemblance  to  a  city,  which 
it  represents ;  a  tortuous  black  line  does  not  look  like  a 
river ;  and  small,  irregular,  scratch-like  lines  do  not 
resemble  a  mountain.  In  short,  the  map  is  made  up  of 
arbitrary  characters,  whose  meaning  should  be  told 
plainly  and  directly  to  the  child. 

For  introducing  maps  the  following  plan  is  recom- 
mended :  - 

i .  Draw  a  real  picture  of  some  place,  say  the  school- 
house  and  grounds,  if  they  are  not  too  complicated. 


GEOGRAPHY.  305 

This   will   contain  representations   of   buildings,    trees, 
fences,  etc.,  which  look  like  the  real  objects. 

2.  With  the  aid  of  the  pupils,  decide  upon  characters 
which    shall   be   used  as  signs  of  buildings,  trees,   and 
fences  ;  then  make  a  second  drawing,  this  time  employ- 
ing the  arbitrary  signs  of  things  in  place  of  the  pictures 
of  the  things.     ( [~]  may  be  used  to  represent  a  house, 

O    to    represent   a   tree,    and    to   represent   a 

fence.) 

3.  Explain  from  this  what  a  map  is  and  then  drill 
much  in  map  drawing. 

In  all  of  this  drawing  insist  upon  preserving  true  pro- 
portions —  the  relative  length,  width,  and  height  of  a 
building;  relative  distances  of  objects  from  each  other; 
relative  directions  of  objects  from  each  other.  In  the 
drawing  where  arbitrary  signs  are  used  to  represent 
things,  especial  care  will  be  needed  to  maintain  correct 
proportions.  Do  not  try  to  give  true  concepts  by  having 
them  draw,  but  use  the  drawing  to  impress  the  concepts 
they  get  from  actual  things  or  from  printed  maps.  For 
purposes  of  geography,  this  drawing  has  two  distinct 
values,  —  it  compels  the  child  to  observe  the  reality  with 
greater  care  in  order  that  he  may  be  able  to  represent  it 
in  all  its  details,  and  it  impresses  the  forms  more  indelibly 
upon  his  mind. 

When  the  child  has  attained  a  fair  degree  of  skill  in 
drawing  maps  of  sections  of  the  country  about  him,  and 
of  other  geographical  divisions  presented  to  him,  it  is  a 
very  good  thing  to  have  much  drawing  from  memory 
of  the  easier  forms.  The  necessity  of  carrying  in  mem- 
ory a  complete  picture  of  a  form  that  is  being  studied, 


306  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

will  force  the  child  to  attend  with  his  utmost  care  to  all 
the  details  of  the  form.  This  added  care  and  the  neces- 
sity of  reproducing  in  its  entirety,  without  again  observing, 
will  do  much  toward  impressing  with  vigor  and  clearness 
whatever  is  being  thus  studied. 

Frequent  opportunity  should  be  given  later  in  the 
work  to  draw  maps  upon  the  blackboard  or  other  immov- 
able surfaces.  This  will  prevent  the  shifting  of  paper, 
which  is  so  common,  in  order  that  all  lines  may  be  made 
with  the  down  stroke  or  stroke  to  the  right,  and  will 
develop  skill  in  drawing  lines  in  every  direction. 

A  careful  study  of  the  method  of  procedure  outlined 
above  will  reveal  the  fact  that  it  is  inductive.  In  each 
case  the  point  of  departure  is  some  single  thing ;  this  is 
followed  by  the  study  of  another  and  another  ;  compari- 
sons are  then  made  and  resulting  conclusions  reached. 
Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  highest  point  attained  in  this 
work  is  about  where  the  books  on  geography  generally 
begin,  —  with  definitions.  When  such  definitions  are 
thus  framed  we  can  have  the  assurance  that  they  are 
understood,  and  we  should  proceed  at  once  to  use  them. 
But  let  it  never  be  forgotten  that  when  a  branch  of 
learning  is  concerned  with  things,  it  is  most  irrational  to 
begin  its  study  by  committing  a  set  of  verbal  definitions 
about  things. 

Systematic  Geography. 

By  systematic  geography  we  mean  what  might  appro- 
priately be  called  the  geography  of  locations,  because 
each  particular  thing  that  is  studied  is  somewhere,  and  its 
position  is  an  important  thing  to  know  concerning  it, 


GEOGRAPHY,  3O/ 

In  introductory  geography  each  particular  thing  that  was 
used  was  taken  because  it  happened  to  be  the  one  at 
hand  (any  other  one  of  the  same  kind  might  have  done 
as  well) ;  its  position  was  not  a  matter  of  any  moment ; 
we  were  not  studying  it  for  the  sake  of  learning  about  it 
in  particular,  but  we  were  using  it  as  a  means  of  learning 
about  the  class  of  which  it  was  a  member.  But  now, 
when  we  come  to  systematic  geography,  we  are  con- 
cerned about  the  particular  things,  one  after  another  in 
themselves,  and  not  as  they  typify  a  class.  If,  in  the 
introductory  stage,  we  used  an  island  it  was  that  we 
might  thereby  learn  what  would  apply  to  islands  in 
general ;  but  now  when  we  study  a  certain  island,  say 
Cuba,  it  is  that  we  may  know  it  in  itself  with  all  its 
especial  attributes  of  position,  size,  shape,  climate,  prod- 
ucts, people,  etc. 

The  thing  to  be  studied  in  systematic  geography  is 
plainly,  the  earth,  an  individual  thing  made  up  of  parts. 
These  parts  are  the  portions  of  land  and  water  which 
constitute  the  earth,  each  with  its  particular  location, 
size,  significance,  name,  etc.  The  first  problem  that 
confronts  us,  in  the  attempt  to  settle  upon  the  correct 
method  of  procedure  in  teaching  this  geography,  is 
where  to  begin. 

Two  opposing  theories  have  been  advocated  with  ref- 
erence to  this  matter.  One  is  that  we  should  begin  with 
the  neighborhood  in  which  the  child  resides  and  proceed 
synthetically  to  study  the  township,  county,  state,  coun- 
try, hemisphere,  and  globe.  The  reasons  usually  given  in 
support  of  this  method  are:  (i)  It  is  in  accord  with  the 
principle  ( ?)  "  Proceed  from  the  known  to  the  related  un- 


308  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

known."  (2)  It  affords  the  child  an  opportunity  to  become 
familiar,  first,  with  the  geography  of  his  home  neighbor- 
hood and  country.  Then,  if  he  is  compelled  to  leave 
school  before  he  has  had  time  to  learn  both,  he  will  know 
the  geography  of  the  country  where  his  interests  are, 
rather  than  of  the  remote  countries  in  which  he  has  no 
recognized  interests. 

The  first  of  these  reasons  has  already  been  considered 
and  rejected  as  not  applying  to  the  subject  matter  and 
method  in  defense  of  which  it  is  offered.  (See  p.  293.) 
It  will  be  enough  to  add  here  that  the  maxim  applies 
only  where  the  elements  of  the  known  and  familiar  can 
be  recognized  as  forming  constituent  parts  of  the  un- 
known. In  any  other  connection  the  employment  of 
this  maxim  is  without  reason,  and  results  in  empty  sound, 
devoid  of  sense.  The  study  of  home  geography  (the 
geography  of  Pennsylvania,  Florida,  or  California  — 
whatever  is  home  for  the  learner]  must  mean  the  study  of 
the  peculiarities  of  that  district,  or  it  can  mean  nothing. 

The  geographical  general  concepts  do  not  form  any 
part  of  the  geography  of  Pennsylvania,  or  of  any  other 
particular  section  of  this  country,  any  more  than  they  do 
of  the  geography  of  Greece.  They  require  the  indi- 
vidual's contact  with  the  realities  of  the  earth  for  their 
unfolding ;  but  this  contact  is  as  wide  as  his  range  of 
experiences,  and  is  not  bound  in  by  anything  else.  Now 
these  geographical  general  concepts,  learned  from  the 
child's  environment,  are  an  aid  to  him  in  all  his  subsequent 
study  of  geography.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  facts 
of  local  geography,  which  are  the  items  that  are  true  of 
the  child's  home  neighborhood,  can  render  no  service 


.         •  GEOGRAPHY.  309 

whatever  in  enabling  him  either  to  interpret  the  geog- 
raphy of  a  distant  place  or  to  fix  in  memory  the  items 
peculiar  to  that  place. 

In  considering  the  second  reason,  it  seems  only  neces- 
sary to  say  that,  while  it  is  true  that  the  child  should 
know  the  geography  of  his  home  country,  and  omit  that 
of  foreign  countries,  if  he  must  neglect  either,  the  ac- 
complishment of  this  end  is  in  no  sense  dependent  upon 
a  synthetic  method  of  procedure.  The  analytic  method 
does  not  necessitate  the  study  of  the  details  of  foreign 
geography  before  the  child  is  given  an  opportunity  of 
studying  the  details  of  home  geography.  It  only  pro- 
ceeds in  a  way  that  will  render  such  details  capable  of 
being  understood. 

The  second  theory  is  that  we  should  begin  our  study 
of  systematic  geography  with  the  earth  in  its  entirety, 
and  proceed  analytically  to  a  consideration  of  the  distri- 
bution of  land  and  water  upon  its  surface,  the  continents, 
countries,  states,  etc.,  to  the  smallest  divisions  considered 
in  political  geography.  When  these  parts  are  known  in 
their  proper  setting  upon  the  earth,  then  we  may  proceed 
to  as  detailed  and  thorough  a  study  of  each  part  as  the 
circumstances  of  the  case  will  warrant. 

Several  arguments  will  be  given  in  support  of  this 
theory. 

i .  It  is  in  harmony  with  the  normal  mode  of  mental 
procedure  in  the  study  of  single  things  ;  that  is,  in  the 
attempt  to  know  or  understand  single  things.  This  mode 
of  procedure  is  claimed  to  be  from  wholes  or  units  to  the 
consideration  of  their  several  parts.  We  know  a  man,  a 
horse,  a  house,  or  a  piano,  first  as  entire  things  ;  we  are  able 


310  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY, 

to  recognize  these  things  and  to  give  their  names  ;  later, 
through  our  desire  to  know  them  more  fully,  we  are 
forced  to  the  necessity  of  mentally  analyzing  them.  Then, 
after  we  have  studied  the  details  of  their  parts,  we  know 
the  things  in  their  entirety  more  intimately.  We  have 
passed  from  the  "  whole  of  apprehension  "  by  an  analytic- 
synthetic  process  back  to  the  "  whole  of  comprehension." 
It  does  not  affect  the  validity  of  this  position  to  assert 
that  in  the  cases  cited  above  the  objects  are  small  enough 
to  be  perceived  in  their  entirety,  while  in  the  case  of  the 
earth  the  unit  is  too  large  to  be  seen  at  once.  In  the 
first  place,  no  solid  (object  of  three  dimensions)  can  be 
perceived  at  once  in  its  entirety.  There  is  always  the 
other  side  to  it,  or  the  inside.  But  what  is  perceived  is 
the  index  to  the  entire  thing.  At  this  stage  our  knowl- 
edge of  it  is  vague  ;  this  knowledge  is  rendered  definite 
by  a  mental  process  of  resolution,  which  must  be  followed, 
in  order  to  save  us  from  fragmentary  results,  by  an  act 
of  reconstruction.  In  the  next  place,  the  difficulties  aris- 
ing from  the  immensity  of  the  earth  are  overcome  by 
the  power  of  the  imagination.  The  whole  earth  cannot 
be  perceived  by  any  one,  but  it  can  be  pictured.  And  in 
this  picturing  process  of  the  imagination  we  can  increase 
or  diminish  at  pleasure,  without  vitiating  results,  provided 
we  retain  true  proportions. 

2.  Geographical  location  of  any  portion  of  the  earth 
is  always  given  in  terms  of  the  next  larger  division.  A 
township  is  located  by  telling  its  position  in  a  county ; 
a  county,  in  a  state ;  a  state,  in  a  country ;  a  country  in 
a  continent ;  a  continent,  in  a  hemisphere ;  and  a  hemi- 
sphere, on  the  earth,  in  a  position  relative  to  the  other 


GEOGRAPHY,  3  I  I 

hemisphere.  Now,  in  the  attempt  to  locate  each  one  of 
these,  it  is  assumed  that  the  child  previously  possesses 
at  least  some  knowledge  of  the  next  larger  one.  If  the 
division  is  studied  without  reference  to  its  location,  this 
artificial  isolation  gives  a  false  notion  of  its  significance. 
Indeed,  location  forms  one  of  the  most  prominent  items 
in  systematic  geography.  This  is  not  meant  as  a  defense 
of  the  ancient  plan  of  studying  maps  blindly,  and  in  this 
act  fancying  that  we  are  learning  locations.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  locations  we  are  studying  are  on 
the  earth  and  not  in  a  book. 

3.  Taking  a  division  of  the  earth  as  the  subject  of 
study  before  it  is  seen  in  its  proper  setting  as  a  part  of  the 
earth,  practically  calls  upon  the  child  to  perform  impos- 
sibilities. The  significance  of  a  geographical  division 
can  be  understood  only  by  knowing  its  relation  to  other 
divisions.  In  the  process  of  isolation,  which  character- 
izes the  synthetic  method  in  geography,  we  destroy  these 
relations  for  the  child  and  then  ask  him  to  learn  their 
meaning.  We  put  out  his  eyes  and  then  ask  him  to 
see. 

With  a  machine  in  working  order  the  attention  of  a 
mechanic  may  be  directed  to  any  one  of  its  parts,  and  he 
may  study  its  position  and  function  with  a  fair  show 
of  success.  Give  him  but  one  part  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  machine,  and  direct  him  under  these  circum- 
stances to  study  its  position  in  the  whole,  and  its  func- 
tion. You  thereby  greatly  increase  the  difficulty  of  his 
task.  If  it  is  a  part  of  a  familiar  machine,  he  can 
approach  the  task  with  a  likelihood  of  performing  it,  be- 
cause his  conception  of  the  whole  will  serve  him  in 


312  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

disposing  of  the  part ;  if  it  is  a  part  of  an  unfamiliar 
machine  he  must  approach  the  task  with  greater  mis- 
giving, though  even  here  his  great  acquaintance  with 
machines  in  general  might  be  of  service.  If  this  task 
were  imposed  upon  a  novice,  he  would  find  it  an  utter 
impossibility,  unless,  indeed,  he  could  invent  a  machine 
to  fit  the  part. 

Something  like  this  is  done  whenever  we  undertake, 
by  the  synthetic  method,  to  teach  a  child  anything  in 
geography.  Our  little  division  has  a  river  passing  through 
it.  This  river  has  never  been  studied  in  its  entirety. 
About  one-twentieth  of  it  is  in  the  division  we  are 
studying.  This  section,  it  is  assumed,  can  be  studied, 
and  its  functions  really  understood.  When  such  a  diffi- 
culty is  met  in  actual  practice,  the  teacher  ignores  his 
theory,  if  he  has  one,  and  jumps  to  a  sufficiently  large 
portion  of  the  earth  to  enable  him  to  get  at  the 
thing  in  question  in  its  entirety.  From  this  he  works 
down  analytically  to  the  smaller  division,  wheie  presum- 
ably his  method  would  have  held  him,  and  then  continues 
in  it  until  another  item  requires  another  jump.  And  all 
of  this  is  done  in  the  belief  that  he  is  consistently  pur- 
suing a  synthetic  method  of  procedure. 

Having  thus  established  the  claim  that  systematic 
geography  should  begin  with  the  earth  in  its  entirety, 
our  next  inquiry  is  for  the  plan  of  procedure. 

Globe.  The  opening  lessons  should  be  given  by 
means  of  a  globe.  The  first  lessons  should  be  devoted 
to  teaching  the  essential  lines  upon  the  globe,  so  that 
the  child  can  thereby  locate  places  and  tell  directions. 
Mathematical  definitions  should  not  be  given,  but  the 


GEOGRAPHY.  3  I  3 

facts  should  be  made  very  plain.  Unless  the  natural 
inquiries  of  the  children  call  for  it,  no  attempt  to  explain 
the  motions  of  the  earth  and  the  consequent  changes  of 
the  seasons  should  be  made  at  this  time.  Such  a  matter 
can  better  be  left  till  the  learners  are  prepared  for  a  more 
systematic  course  in  physical  geography.  The  distribu- 
tion of  land  and  water  should  be  impressed.  The  line 
through  which  the  sphere  is  divided  in  imagination  into 
hemispheres,  for  convenience  of  study,  should  be  pointed 
out.  The  names  of  the  hemispheres,  the  divisions  of 
land  on  each,  together  with  their  names,  estimated  pro- 
portions of  land  and  water  on  each,  the  representation 
of  directions  on  the  globe  —  these  are  among  the  items 
that  it  is  important  to  teach  at  this  time. 

Since  these  are  all  arbitrary  facts  which  need  to  be 
deeply  impressed  upon  the  memory,  and  since  there  are 
so  many  new  and  arbitrary  words  to  be  impressed,  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  many  and  varied  repetitions 
of  the  same  items  are  necessary.  Added  interest  may 
be  given  to  the  study  of  location,  in  considering  the 
great  divisions,  if  the  classes  are  taken  over  many  differ- 
ent imaginative  journeys.  In  these,  the  countries  and 
the  bodies  of  water  passed  over  should  be  named  by 
the  children,  for  some  time  with  the  globe  before  them, 
later  from  memory.  Comparative  sizes  may  be  im- 
pressed by  being  worked  into  problems  of  various  kinds. 

Outline  Maps.  This  work  upon  the  globe  should  be 
supplemented  by  careful  work  upon  an  outline  map. 
The  globe  and  map  should  frequently  be  compared,  in 
order  to  make  clear  to  the  learners  that  we  are  now 
representing  a  spherical  surface  upon  a  plane,  And 


314  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY, 

both  of  these  should  be  studied  constantly  in  the  light  of 
the  real  world  about  us.  At  the  beginning,  and  for  a  con- 
siderable time,  the  map  should  be  before  the  child  while 
he  is  reciting.  We  want  to  be  sure  that  he  is  getting 
impressed  from  the  beginning  with  true  mental  pictures. 
If  the  proper  map  is  not  kept  before  him  till  a  distinct 
image  of  the  earth's  surface  is  formed,  the  likelihood  is, 
that  he  will  construct  in  imagination  a  picture  with  many 
parts  in  error,  and  this  erroneous  picture  will  be  im- 
pressed, whenever  it  is  repeated,  with  just  as  much  force 
as  the  true  one. 

We  should  not  attempt  to  teach  details  in  this  early 
map  study,  but  should  look  to  the  larger  elements  only. 
Much  interest  may  be  added  to  the  otherwise  dull  study 
of  the  globe  and  map,  by  calling  attention  to  the  typical 
productions,  animals,  and  peoples  of  the  different  zones. 
Stories  setting  forth  the  different  modes  of  life,  dress,  and 
industries  of  the  people  in  the  different  countries,  may 
be  introduced  as  supplementary  reading.  Map  drawing, 
as  a  means  of  impressing  the  forms  and  giving  variety 
to  the  study,  should  be  taken  up  from  the  beginning. 

Text-Book  Course. 

This  preliminary  work  in  systematic  geography,  done 
by  the  aid  of  globe  and  outline  maps,  preceded  as  it  has 
been  by  a  course  in  introductory  geography,  will  prepare 
the  child  for  an  intelligent  study  of  the  book.  When 
this  is  taken  up,  several  matters  of  great  importance 
should  be  kept  in  mind. 

It  may  be  that  the  subject  matter  in  a  given  text-book 
is  not  arranged  in  the  best  possible  order  for  every 


GEOGRAPHY.  3  I  5 

school.  If  so,  let  the  teacher  never  hesitate  to  rear- 
range it.  If  the  general  philosophy  of  the  subject  is 
understood,  the  teacher  can  always  be  trusted  to  modify 
the  arrangements  of  details  at  pleasure. 

It  may  be  that  the  book  in  use  contains  many  more 
details  than  the  teacher  of  a  given  school  will  feel  justi- 
fied in  presenting.  Under  such  circumstances  the 
teacher  must  rise  above  the  feeling  of  bondage  to  a 
book,  and  must  select  and  omit  as  the  conditions  of  the 
school  seem  to  demand.  No  hesitation  should  be  felt 
for  fear  children  will  regard  such  a  selection  of  matter 
as  a  mark  of  weakness.  Rigid  adherence  to  a  book 
more  strongly  suggests  a  lack  of  knowledge  than  does 
either  a  rearrangement  of  the  subject  matter  or  an 
omission  of  non-essential  parts.  Let  the  teacher  of 
geography  know  geography,  and  the  book  will  then 
become  his  servant,  not  his  master. 

Let  it  never  be  forgotten  that  the  pictures  with  which 
our  modern  text-books  in  geography  abound  are  among 
the  very  best  aids  in  the  teaching  of  the  subject.  Aside 
from  travel  itself,  nothing  will  serve  better  than  these 
well-chosen  pictures  to  give  to  learners  correct  ideas 
of  places,  people,  industries,  etc.  Lessons  upon  these 
pictures  will  break  the  monotony  of  the  map  study,  and 
will  tend  to  render  that  study  increasingly  intelligent. 

The  descriptive  text  of  the  geographies  should  be 
studied  with  much  care.  This  text  should  not  be 
committed  to  memory  verbatim,  but  it  should  be  recited 
in  the  manner  found  suited  to  history  text  or  to  any 
other  ordinary  record  of  facts.  At  times  it  should  be 
read  in  class  and  commented  upon.  At  other  times  it 


3l6  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

should  be  assigned  for  study,  and  might  even  constitute 
the  only  subject  matter  of  a  lesson. 

It  will  result  in  a  better  appreciation  of  both  history 
and  geography  if  the  teacher  will  observe  a  proper 
correlation  of  these  subjects.  Let  no  history  of  a  coun- 
try be  studied  without  calling  definite  attention  to  the 
places  where  the  events  recorded  took  place.  Inciden- 
tally, when  the  geography  of  an  important  place  is  being 
studied,  let  references  and  questions  upon  the  main  facts 
of  its  history  be  introduced.  The  important  result  to  be 
secured,  aside  from  the  deeper  impression  of  both  sets 
of  facts  through  the  repetition  of  them,  is  the  ability  and 
the  habit  of  thinking  of  historical  items  when  geography 
is  being  studied,  and  of  geographical  items  when  history 
is  being  studied.  Many  children  know  much  more  geog- 
raphy, when  in  the  geography  class,  than  they  ever 
think  of  at  other  times.  One  cause  of  this  is  the  faulty 
method  of  study  by  which  a  child  fixes  in  mind  only 
temporarily  the  things  which  are  to  be  recited  a  few 
minutes  later,  and,  as  the  recitation  is  ended,  these  items 
having  served  their  purpose,  are  put  aside  much  as  one 
would  dispose  of  cast-off  garments.  A  simple  remedy 
for  the  teacher  to  apply  to  this  ill,  is  persistent  review. 
But  another  cause  of  the  peculiar  mental  condition 
stated  above  is  the  practice  of  so  sharply  dissociating 
the  various  subjects  of  the  course  that  the  child  is  led 
to  think  they  bear  no  relation  to  each  other,  and  hence 
should  not  be  thought  of  together.  We  should  strive 
to  remedy  this  defect  by  calling  upon  the  child  to  use 
in  each  class  any  of  the  related  items  of  knowledge  he 
may  possess. 


GEOGRAPHY.  317 


Commercial  Geography. 

Great  interest  can  be  awakened  in  the  subject  of 
geography  by  introducing  much  of  commercial  geog- 
raphy. Nothing  can  serve  better  than  this  to  impress 
upon  children  the  products  and  industries  of  various 
countries.  It  will  also  serve  to  teach  them  how  closely 
all  of  civilized  mankind  is  bound  together,  how  the  in- 
terests of  all  sections  are  disturbed  by  disturbing  those 
of  any  one  prominent  section,  how  each  country  needs 
the  aid  of  all  the  other  countries  to  enable  it  to  enjoy 
the  fruits  of  the  most  developed  industry,  and  how  divi- 
sion of  labor  tends  to  make  the  members  of  the  human 
family  mutually  dependent  upon  each  other. 

In  this  course  we  should  study  the  imports  and  the 
exports  of  all  the  prominent  countries  ;  the  railroad  and 
steamship  lines,  the  canals  and  caravan  routes,  over 
which  the  products  of  the  world  are  carried ;  the  sea- 
sons of  harvest,  say  of  wheat,  in  che  different  countries ; 
and  all  other  items  of  interest  growing  out  of  the  trade 
relations  of  the  different  countries  of  the  world. 

Physical  Geography. 

To  complete  the  work  in  geography  a  full  course  in 
physical  geography  should  be  given.  In  this  we  return 
to  the  method  of  work  in  introductory  geography.  The 
principal  aim  is,  not  to  learn  about  distinct  individual 
things  as  in  systematic  geography,  but  to  develop  a  full 
set  of  geographical  general  notions. 

Because  of  the   degree  of   completeness  that  should 


. 

318  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

characterize  the  work  at  this  stage,  each  pupil  should 
have  a  book  in  physical  geography.  By  this  time  pupils 
should  know  how  to  use  a  book,  and  should  therefore 
have  it  as  a  means  of  reviewing,  impressing,  and  other- 
wise perfecting  their  knowledge  of  subjects  presented 
in  class. 

Actual  realities,  and  not  definitions  and  descriptions 
from  the  book,  should  form  the  basis  of  our  work  here 
as  elsewhere.  The  book  may  be  used  to  supplement 
the  work  with  real  things,  but  it  should  not  supplant  it. 
The  method  in  this,  as  in  all  the  natural  sciences,  should 
be  inductive,  —  leading  up  from  the  individual  instances 
presented,  to  the  appropriate  generalizations,  and  then 
returning  to  apply  these  truths  in  newly  discovered 
instances. 


NATURE    STUDY.  319 


CHAPTER    XX. 
NATURE  STUDY. 

BECAUSE  of  the  uniformity  in  their  nature,  and  the 
consequent  similarity  in  the  methods  of  teaching  them, 
this  term  is  used,  in  the  present  chapter,  to  cover  what 
is  ordinarily  meant  by  nature  study  (plants,  insects, 
minerals,  etc.),  and  also  the  study  of  the  human  body,  as 
well  as  any  other  material  sciences  of  the  elementary 
school  which  rest  upon  a  foundation  of  facts,  gleaned 
by  observation. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  here  to  teach  the  truths  in  any 
department  of  nature  study  (special  books  abound  in 
which  that  is  ably  done),  but  merely  to  present,  in  line 
with  the  general  philosophy  of  this  work,  a  few  of  the 
more  important  items  which  may  either  aid  or  hinder 
one's  success  in  teaching. 

1.  Having    determined    the    unit    of    the    branch    of 
nature  study  that  is  under  consideration,  we  should  aim 
to  present  that  to  the  child  in  its  wholeness  at  the  begin- 
ning.     Selected  pieces  or  badly  deformed    wholes    will 
cause  the  child's  knowledge  to  be  either  fragmentary  or 
entirely  wrong.     The  significance  of    the  several  parts 
can  be  comprehended  when  they  are  taken  from  their 
organic  relations  and  analyzed ;  they  are  almost  incom- 
prehensible when  presented  as  isolated  parts. 

2.  Let  the  aim  be  to  train  the  child's  power  of  obser- 
vation and  ability  to  study  nature,  rather  than  to  impress 


326  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

upon  him  a  certain  number  of  facts  about  nature.  To 
this  end  he  must  be  led  to  make  the  actual  observations 
for  himself.  Generally  the  teacher  will  defeat  his  pur- 
poses if  he  tells  the  child  what  is  before  him,  and  then 
asks  him  to  notice  it.  This  will  often  lead  to  the  child's 
merely  giving  assent  to  what  the  teacher  announces, 
without  taking  the  trouble  of  actually  observing  it  him- 
self. A  question  that  shall  elicit  from  the  child  a  reply 
which  compels  observation  is  much  more  effective. 

It  should  be  noted,  further,  that  the  child  should  be 
led  to  make  observations,  not  be  trusted  to  make  them 
independently.  What  he  gets  without  assistance  may  be 
of  greater  worth  to  him  than  what  he  gets  under  guid- 
ance ;  but  this  is  very  questionable.  Most  of  the  unaided 
observations  of  children  are  random  ones,  and  they 
result  in  many  facts,  but  with  little  coherency.  There  is 
value  in  an  orderly  consideration  of  things,  and  the 
teacher's  maturity  and  experience  should  be  turned  to 
the  benefit  of  the  child  in  thus  aiding  him  to  follow  an 
order,  which  experience  has  taught  men,  through  long 
years  of  trial,  to  be  valuable.  This  must  not  be  con- 
strued as  a  recommendation  to  do  the  child's  work  for 
him.  It  merely  means  that,  in  addition  to  the  material 
and  the  inspiration  to  use  it,  the  teacher  is  to  train  the 
child  into  proper  habits  of  study,  which  will  enable  him 
to  catch  up  with  the  ever-widening  field  of  human 
achievements,  and  to  comprehend  it. 

3.  If  the  child's  ability  to  study  nature  is  to  be 
enlarged,  we  should  encourage  him  to  seek  for  nature's 
products  in  the  environment  in  which  nature  places  them. 
Objects  of  nature  may  be  brought  into  the  schoolroom 


NATURE   STUDY.  $21 

for  use,  but  they  can  be  fully  understood  only  when 
they  are  known  in  connection  with  their  natural  habitat. 
The  child  should  therefore  learn,  through  finding  them 
for  himself,  in  what  kinds  of  places  to  search  for  certain 
plants,  animals,  or  minerals.  In  this  way  he  can  learn 
many  of  the  habits  of  living  things  which  could  not  be 
revealed  in  the  artificial  environment  of  the  schoolroom. 
As  an  incentive  to  such  work  the  children  should  be 
encouraged  to  supply  the  school  with  material  for  study, 
rather  than  to  have  it  furnished  for  them  by  the  teacher. 

4.  Unless  objects  are  very  lar*ge,  so  that  the  children 
can  surround  them  and  be  sure  of  seeing  all  the  neces- 
sary parts  plainly,  each  child  should  be  given  an  oppor^ 
t unity  to  handle  an  object  for  himself.     The  ability  to 
handle  it  with  care  is  worth    something,  but  of   more 
importance  in  this  place  is  the  certainty  it  gives  that  he 
can  see  all^  that  is  required  (color,  connections  of  parts, 
etc.),  and  that  he  can  learn  the  many  important  items 
revealed  to  touch  alone. 

5.  In  all   object   study  the  ability   to   tell  what  has 
been  observed  forms  a  very  important  part.     The  lan- 
guage training  itself  is  valuable,  but  more  valuable  in 
this  connection  is  the  ability  to  distinguish  between  what 
is   actually  observed   and  what   is   thought  about  that 
which  is  observed.     Teachers  need  to  remember  that,  at 
any  given  instant,  only  one  fact  is  observable,  and  then 
another,  and  another.     In  training  the  child  to  tell  what 
he  has  observed,  we  should  not  permit  him  to  say  he  sees 
that  "birds"  do  so  and  so,  but  rather  that  "this  bird" 
did  thus  and  so.     The  former  of  these  is  a  generalization, 
and  that  is  never  an  observable  quantity, 


322  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

6.  In  leading  children  to  make   generalizations,  let 
comparison  of  individual  instances  play  a  very  important 
part.     If  one  specimen  is  studied  as  the  type  of  a  class, 
be  sure  to  impress  upon  the  child,  in  so  far  as  is  practi- 
cable, the  necessity  of  things  being  as  they  are.     Other- 
wise he  will  pick  out  the  oddities  in  the  specimen  before 
him,  and  immediately  transfer  these  to  the  class,  much  as 
the  German  did  who  wrote  in  his  note-book,  "  Americans 
wear  their  overcoats  when  they  are  warm,"  because  he 
saw  an  American  rush  into  a  cold  railway  car  and  then 
place  his  overcoat  about  his  shoulders   to   prevent  too 
sudden  cooling. 

When  such  mistaken  generalizations  are  made,  the 
teacher  should  not  tell  the  child  his  error,  as  a  general 
rule,  but  present  another  case  which  clearly  disproves  the 
generalization,  and  help  the  child  to  discover  his  error. 
It  requires  only  one  contrary  fact  to  disprove  an  entire 
theory,  and  the  best  way  to  get  at  this  fact  is  by  taking 
the  child  directly  to  the  reality  from  which  it  can  be 
learned. 

7.  In  all  this  study  of  nature  the  teacher  should  make 
the  child's  acquaintance  with  the  realities  of  the  world 
about  him  the   occasion  for  correlating  with  it  suitable 
literature,  composition  work,  drawing,  etc.     When  these 
matters  are  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  learner,  side 
by  side  with  the  realities  of  which  they  treat,  it  arouses 
within  him  a  stronger  motive  to  pursue    them,  and   it 
emphasizes    their    worth    at    the    same    time  that    it 
impresses  them  with  greater  force  upon  his  mind. 

8.  In  all  nature  study  children  should  be  taught  how 
to    collect    specimens    so    as    not    to  wantonly    destroy 


NATURE    STUDY.  323 

things,  In  the  realm  of  plants,  for  instance,  if  they  are 
collecting  only  flowers  or  buds  or  leaves  for  study,  they 
should  be  impressed  with  the  idea  that  it  is  not  right  for 
them  to  pull  up  entire  plants  and  throw  them  away.  In 
many  localities  the  trailing  arbutus  is  being  exterminated 
because  of  such  ruthless  treatment.  Moreover,  the  reflex 
effect  of  such  conduct  upon  the  child  is  bad ;  it  tends  to 
make  him  wasteful,  rude,  and  indifferent  to  the  influences 
that  nature's  beauty  casts  about  him. 

In  the  animal  realm  great  care  should  be  exercised  to 
prevent  needless  suffering  to  the  creatures  studied.  To 
this  end  it  is  well  to  refrain  from  the  use  of  cats,  dogs, 
etc.,  in  the  study  of  animal  physiology  with  children  ; 
animals  that  are  used  for  food  and  that  have  been 
humanely  killed,  may  be  used,  —  the  eye,  brain,  heart, 
lungs,  etc.,  of  the  sheep,  calf,  or  pig. 

It  is  never  well  to  sacrifice  to  mere  learning  the 
elements  of  our  natures  that  make  for  tender  sympathy, 
kindliness,  and  a  consistent  regard  for  all  God's  creatures  ; 
and  especially  so  since  the  learning  can  be  as  well  se- 
cured without  any  lessening  of  the  other  elements. 


324  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 


CHAPTER    XXL 
ARITHMETIC. 

IN  teaching  arithmetic  the  following  important  mat- 
ters need  to  be  thoroughly  grasped  and  constantly  kept 
in  mind  by  the  teacher  :  — 

1.  Numbers  are  not  "things"  such  as  pebbles,  sticks, 
beans,  blocks,  or  balls  on  a  numeral  frame.     However 
necessary  it  may  be  to  use  objects  in  teaching  number, 
it  must  be  clear  to  any  one  who  will  give  the  matter 
earnest  thought  that  the  objects  themselves  do  not  con- 
stitute the  numbers,  but  that  they  are  merely  the  means 
whereby  numbers  may  be  presented. 

2.  Numbers  are  not  qualities  in  things.     They  do  not 
inhere  in  things  as  the  elements  do  which  enable  us  to 
know  color,  form,  etc.     In  respect  to  these  qualities,  our 
sense   organs   and  mind    are    open   to   the   impressions 
things  are  able  to  make  upon  us  ;  and,  as  a  result  of 
such  immediate  impression,  we  know  what  is  familiarly 
called  "the  quality  of  the  thing"  which  is  affecting  us. 
Such  knowledge  is  the  direct  product  of  perception.     To 
get  the  number  ideas,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  per- 
form a  different  kind  of  mental  action  from  that  which 
is  required  to  give  us  knowledge  of  the  sense  qualities 
of  things. 

3.  Numbers  are  not  mental  pictures  of  things.     Doubt- 
less an  early  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  learner  will  be 
to  picture  things  in  illustration  of  numbers,  because  the 


ARITHMETIC.  325 

numbers  have  been  taught  through  the  medium  of 
things.  But  he  must  be  led  to  see  that  while  this  is 
a  concrete  illustration  of  the  number,  it  is  only  that,  and 
not  the  number  itself.  The  picture,  which  he  may  have 
in  mind  of  three  or  four  things,  carries  with  it  the  color, 
form,  position,  etc.,  of  the  things,  as  well  as  the  number 
idea.  His  attention  must  be  directed  to  the  "  three- 
ness"  or  "fourness"  that  is  illustrated  in  the  picture; 
and  this  can  be  done  only  by  directing  his  thought  to 
varieties  of  things,  differing  in  their  qualities,  but  agree- 
ing in  the  single  matter  of  number. 

4.  Numbers  are  not  identical  with  figures.  There 
may  come  a  time,  in  the  more  advanced  stage  of  the 
work,  when  the  learner  is  entirely  justified  in  manipulat- 
ing with  figures,  letters,  etc.,  but  that  will  be  when  he 
fully  understands  what  they  signify.  He  will  not  then 
think  that  he  has  mastered  the  intricacies  of  arithmetic, 
nor  that  he  comprehends  its  philosophy,  when  he  knows 
how  to  "  put  down  the  right-hand  figure  and  carry  the 
rest";  how  to  "borrow  one  from  the  next  column";  how 
to  "invert  the  divisor  and  proceed  as  in  multiplication," 
etc.  He  must  be  led  to  see  that  figures  are  only  the 
written  symbols  of  numbers,  just  as  "cat,"  "dog," 
"  horse,"  etc.,  are  the  written  symbols  of  .the  objects  for 
which  they  stand.  It  may  aid  the  learner  in  compre- 
hending this  if  we  show  him  that,  in  addition  to  the 
arbitrary  symbol  of  number  (the  figure),  there  is  also 
another  written  element  which  represents  the  number 
(strokes,  dots,  squares,  etc.),  and  which  bears  a  closer 
resemblance  to  the  number  which  it  represents  than  the 
figure  does;  just  as  there  are  other  written  representa- 


326  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

tives,  besides  the  words,  for  the  animals  above  referred 
to ;  namely,  the  pictures  of  those  animals.  That  figures, 
instead  of  being  numbers,  are  arbitrary  signs  of  numbers, 
and  yet  a  great  convenience  in  arithmetical  notation, 
should  be  clearly  grasped  by  the  teacher. 

5.  Counting  does  not  consist  in  saying  names.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  a  child  may  be  taught  to  say,  in  their 
order,  the  names  of  all  the  numbers  from  one  to  one 
hundred.  This  he  may  be  able  to  do  both  forward  and 
backward,  and  yet  not  be  able  to  count.  Further,  we 
cannot  be  sure  that  he  is  able  to  count  even  when  he 
can  recognize  and  make  the  figures  whose  names  (iden- 
tical with  the  names  of  the  corresponding  numbers)  he 
may  be  able  to  pronounce.  He  is  able  to  count  only 
when  he  can  represent,  by  means  of  things,  the  number 
whose  name  is  given.  This  requires  a  distinct  process 
of  mental  abstraction,  of  thinking  upon  the  twoness, 
threeness,  etc.,  of  things,  to  the  disregard  of  other  ele- 
ments which  may  crowd  upon  us  in  the  contemplation 
of  things. 

Having  stated  in  this  negative  way  some  important 
items  for  the  teacher  of  arithmetic  to  keep  in  mind,  we 
now  proceed  to  discuss  what  he  shall  do,  and  to  intimate 
how  he  should  do  it. 

The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  give  the  learner  correct 
number  ideas.  This  is  but  bringing  him  into  touch  with 
the  actual  reality  of  arithmetic  at  the  outset. 

The  best  plan  for  developing  these  number  ideas  is 
through  the  use  of  objects  (numeral  frame,  sticks,  blocks, 
pebbles,  beans,  etc.).  To  give  no  more  direction  than 
this  would  not  by  any  means  insure  success  in  teaching. 


ARITHMETIC. 


It  is  necessary  to  add  further  that  there  must  be  variety 
in  the  use  of  objects.  If  a  teacher  finds  sticks  the  most 
convenient  objects  to  employ  in  teaching  number,  he 
must  not  forget  to  have  the  learners  count  many  other 
things  also.  Relying  upon  any  one  set  of  things  is 
likely  to  cause  the  child  to  think  that  he  is  studying 
that  thing,  whereas  the  thing  is  only  his  instrument  of 
learning.  We  must  also  eliminate  from  our  considera- 
tion of  things  in  the  number  class  the  color,  form,  size, 
position,  etc.,  and  this  can  be  done  only  by  having  him 
apply  the  same  kind  of  thought  processes  to  similar 
things  which  differ  in  color,  in  form,  in  size^  in  position, 
etc. 

Further,  we  should  add  that,  in  the  use  of  objects,  the 
teacher  should  make  his  use  of  them  tell  the  truth.  If, 
in  counting  objects,  he  points  first  to  one,  then  to  an- 
other and  another,  and  so  on,  calling  them  in  turn 
"one,"  "two,"  "three,"  etc.,  he  is  not  telling  the  truth; 
neither  is  he  telling  what  he  is  thinking.  He  virtually 
calls  the  second  one  "two,"  the  third  one  "three,"  etc. 
This  must  be  overcome  by  including  the  first  and  the 
second  together  in  our  notice  and  calling  them  "two  "  ; 
these  taken  together  with  another  should  then  be  called 
"three,"  etc.  The  same  thought  applies  to  the  use  of 
objects  in  teaching  the  fundamental  operations.  The 
teacher  should  not  present  two  objects  (holding  them 
up)  and  then  three  other  objects  (holding  them  up  apart 
from  the  first  two)  and  call  the  sum  five  objects  (keeping 
the  two  and  the  three  still  apart).  The  two  objects 
should  be  presented  and  the  number  given  ;  then  the 
three  others  should  be  presented  apart  from  the  first, 


328  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

and  this  number  given ;  finally  the  sum  should  be  given 
only  when  the  two  and  the  three  are  brought  together 
into  one  group.  This  is  important  in  the  smaller  num- 
bers, because  between  two  objects  and  three  objects  the 
child  can  perceive  (as  well  as  think)  a  difference  in  the 
groups  of  objects  thus  used  to  illustrate  the  two  num- 
bers. So  long  as  this  is  true,  we  should  make  our 
grouping  of  objects  faithfully  illustrate  the  numbers 
which  we  think. 

Thus,  we  should  not  teach  him  that  two  sticks  (i  i)  and 
three  sticks  (m)  make  five  sticks  (i  i  in),  but  rather 
that  two  sticks  (11)  and  three  sticks  (m)  make  five 
sticks  (inn). 

At  this  point  it  may  be  well  to  state  that  the  number 
idea  is  an  abstract  idea,  and  that  what  we  call  concrete 
numbers  are  in  reality  things  which  have  been  numbered 
(counted).  It  is  often  claimed  that  abstract  ideas  are  too 
difficult  for  a  child  six  years  of  age,  and  that  therefore  we 
should  not  undertake  to  teach  numbers  as  abstractions, 
but  should  teach  figures  and  things  instead.  To  this  we 
reply  that,  if  numbers  are  abstractions,  the  only  way  to 
teach  them  truthfully  is  to  teach  them  as  abstractions. 
This  does  not  mean  that  we  are  to  teach  numbers  by 
what  is  called  the  abstract  process  of  teaching.  We 
should  teach  them  by  the  use  of  objects  (concretely), 
but  we  must  lead  the  learner  to  understand  that  the  thing 
is  not  what  he  is  studying,  but  that  it  is  merely  the  instru- 
ment which  enables  him  to  grasp  the  reality  —  in  this 
case,  the  abstract  number  idea. 

Further,'  figures  and  things  which  are  used  for  the 
purpose  of  teaching  number  are  only  representatives  of 


ARITHMETIC.  329 

numbers,  and,  as  representatives,  are  significant  only 
when  we  know  the  things  which  they  signify ;  so  figures 
and  things  (as  used  in  the  number  class)  are  significant 
only  when  we  have  the  true  number  ideas  for  which  they 
stand. 

Finally,  instead  of  this  difficulty  being  an  excuse  for 
teaching  something  else  instead  of  the  truth,  at  the  age 
of  six  years,  it  is  a  very  strong  argument  in  favor  of 
putting  off  the  attempt  to  teach  number  at  all  until  the 
child  has  attained  mental  maturity  enough  to  enable  him 
to  grasp  the  true  ideas  with  which  the  subject  deals. 
Indeed,  the  writer  gives  it  as  his  personal  opinion,  based 
on  observation  and  experiment,  that  there  should  be  no 
attempt  made  to  give  systematic  instruction  in  numbers  to 
children  under  eight  years  of  age.  It  has  been  found,  by 
taking  children  just  as  they  appear,  without  making 
selection,  that  the  children  started  in  systematic  num- 
ber work  at  the  age  of  eight  years  were  just  as  far 
advanced  at  the  age  of  ten  as  were  those  who  began  it 
at  six,  and  continued  it  until  they  were  ten.  In  other 
words,  when  the  child's  mind  was  mature  enough  to 
grasp  the  subject,  he  did  as  much  in  it  in  two  years  as 
another  child  did  in  four  years,  when  during  much  of 
that  time  he  was  too  immature  to  do  the  work  under- 
standingly. 

The  value  of  such  an  adjustment  of  subjects  seems  to 
the  writer  all  the  more  evident,  as  we  think  of  the 
advantage  to  the  child  in  having  all  his  time,  during  the 
first  two  years  of  school  life,  to  devote  to  the  acquisition 
of  those  arts  (reading,  spelling,  language,  writing,  and 
other  easy  mechanical  arts)  which  shall  furnish  him  the 


33O  SYSTEMATIC  METHODOLOGY. 

key  to  the  world's  recorded  knowledge,  and  the  means  of 
expressing  his  own,  and  of  those  elements  of  perceptional 
knowledge  secured  by  contact  with  the  world  of  things 
about  him. 

Assuming,  then,  that  the  necessity  of  giving  correct 
number  ideas  at  the  beginning  is  conceded,  we  turn  to  a 
more  complete  discussion  of  the  process  of  counting  — 
the  process  by  which  these  number  ideas  are  developed 
and  which,  when  rightly  done,  opens  the  way  to  a  com- 
plete understanding  of  many  of  the  so-called  distinct 
processes  in  arithmetic. 

In  counting,  there  are  two  elements  which  should  be 
made  plain  to  the  learner, —  (i)  the  establishing  of  a 
unit,  and  (2)  noting  how  many  times  this  unit  is  contained 
in  the  given  quantity.  If  I  am  counting  twelve  apples, 
"one  at  a  time, "one  apple  is  my  unit,  and  twelve  is  the 
number  which  denotes  how  many  units  of  this  kind  are 
contained  in  the  given  quantity  (twelve  apples).  If  I  am 
counting  twelve  apples,  by  twos,  the  unit  is  two  apples, 
and  the  number  which  denotes  how  many  units  of  this 
kind  are  contained  in  the  quantity  is  six.  If  I  count 
twelve  apples,  by  threes,  the  unit  is  three  apples,  the 
quantity  is  twelve  apples,  and  the  number  is  four.  Thus 
it  is  evident  that  the  unit  is  not  a  fixed  and  unchangeable 
thing,  but  a  thing  which  we  determine  for  occasion,  or 
establish. 

According  to  the  common  system  of  numeration  (the 
decimal  system)  we  cannot  appeal  to  the  learner's 
reasoning  powers  to  render  us  much  help  in  the  numbers 
from  one  to  ten  inclusive.  Each  number  is  made  up  of 
the  preceding  number  with  one  additional  unit,  and  the 


ARITHMETIC.  331 

names  of  the  numbers,  in  their  regular  order,  must  be 
arbitrarily  held  in  memory.  But  in  everything  above  ten 
the  understanding  should  be  appealed  to  constantly.  To 
this  end  we  should  adopt  what  is  called  the  scientific 
method  of  counting  rather  than  the  common  method. 
By  the  common  method  the  learner  will  regard  each 
number  as  made  up  (as  the  numbers  bel^w  ten  are)  of 
the  one  below  it  together  with  one  additional  unit,  and 
he  will  call  them  eleven,  twelve,  thirteen,  .  .  .  twenty, 
twenty-one,  twenty-two,  etc.  By  the  scientific  method 
the  system  of  grouping  by  tens  will  be  revealed,  and  the 
names  used  will  keep  this  plan  of  grouping  before  the 
learner's  mind ;  thus,  one  ten  and  one,  one  ten  and  two, 
one  ten  and  three,  .  .  .  two  tens,  two  tens  and  one,  two 
tens  and  two,  etc.,  to  ten  tens.  By  the  time  this  is 
reached,  the  subject  will  offer  all  the  variety  that  is 
required  to  enable  the  learner  to  catch  the  spirit  of  the 
decimal  notation,  without  taxing  him  with  numbers  that 
are  especially  difficult  because  of  their  size. 

Accordingly,  it  is  urged  that  the  course  in  number  be 
arranged  in  three  main  divisions,  kept  distinct  in  the 
teacher's  mind,  though  their  bounds  may  at  times  be 
somewhat  overstepped  in  practice.  The  first  division  is 
with  numbers  no  greater  than  ten,  where  all  the  opera- 
tions that  are  performed  may  easily  be  performed  orally ; 
where  objects  may  be  employed  to  illustrate  all  opera- 
tions, and  where  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  bring  into 
use  the  merits  of  the  decimal  system,  because  at  that 
point  they  do  not  apply. 

The  second  division  is  with  numbers  from  ten  to  one 
hundred,  where  all  the  elements  of  the  decimal  system  of 


332  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

numeration  and  notation  (excepting  the  formation  and 
naming  of  higher  groups)  may  easily  be  taught ;  where 
the  reasons  for  the  processes  of  naming  and  writing 
numbers  may  still  be  clearly  revealed  through  the  use  of 
objects,  and  where  we  still  keep  within  the  bounds  of 
rather  easily  comprehended  numbers  ;  though  here  the 
upper  limit  is^fixed  at  one  hundred,  simply  as  a  matter 
of  reasonable  convenience,  while  in  the  first  division 
the  upper  limit  is  fixed  at  ten  as  a  necessity  of  the 
system. 

The  third  division  is  with  numbers  of  all  sizes,  where 
the  remaining  elements  of  the  decimal  system  are  brought 
out,  where  the  learner  can,  with  greater  profit,  turn  his 
attention  away  from  a  consideration  of  the  different 
numbers,  and  devote  it  with  greater  energy  to  the  dis- 
tinct operations  with  numbers ;  where  the  entire  field  of 
arithmetic  as  a  complete  science  is  opened  to  him,  and 
has  begun  to  engage  his  thought, 


Course  from  One  to  Ten. 

Throughout  the  oral  work  from  one  to  ten  the  process 
of  teaching  each  number  may  be  divided  into  the  three 
following  parts  :  — 

1.  Introduction  of  the  number  by  means  of  objects. 

2.  Drawing  of  squares,  triangles,  or  strokes  (to  illus- 
trate   the    number),    and    counting    them    forward    and 
backward. 

3.  Application  of  the  child's   knowledge   of   forward 
and  backward  counting  in  reasonable  problems. 

It  may  not  be  necessary  to  perform  these  three  parts, 


ARITHMETIC.  333 

in  the  order  given,  with  each  number,  but  it  is  likely  to 
be  very  wise  to  do  so.  In  the  first  part  we  may  use  any 
convenient  objects ;  but  it  will  be  a  wise  correlation  of 
subjects,  if,  with  their  appropriate  numbers,  we  employ 
such  objects  as  will  reveal  to  the  children  truths  of 
science  at  the  same  time  that  they  are  learning  numbers. 
With  three  we  can  use  the  pitch  pine  (leaves  in  clusters 
of  three)  ;  with  five,  the  white  pine  (leaves  in  clusters  of 
five)  ;  with  seven,  the  leaf  of  the  horse-chestnut  (seven 
leaflets),  etc.  These  are  especially  valuable  in  applying 
their  knowledge  of  counting  to  the  different  objects  that 
may  be  brought  to  their  notice.  Perhaps  the  most  con- 
venient objects  to  use  in  the  regular  work  of  teaching 
number  are  kindergarten  sticks,  as  the  combinations  and 
separations  are  most  easily  made  with  them. 
Illustration  with  the  number  five  :  - 
(It  assumes  that  the  child  has  learned  four,) 


First  step. 


With  four  known,  add  the  one  and  give 

the  new  name,  —  five. 
Have  pupils  count  the  leaves  in  a  cluster 

on  the  white  pine. 
Have  them  pluck  off  one  leaf  at  a  time 

and  count  backwards. 


Let    them    draw    a    square,    triangle,    or 

stroke  for  each  leaf,  and  count. 
Second  step.  <  _  ~ 

'  Let  them  cross  off  or  erase  one  square  at 

a  time,  and  count  backwards. 


334 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 


Let  them  name  and  count  the  school  days 
of  a  week. 

How  many  leaves  in  a  white  pine  cluster 
(or  flowers  [five]  on  my  desk)?  How 
many  remain  if  I  take  one  away  ?  an- 
other ?  etc. 

Third  step.    ^  I  had  five  apples  and  gave  one  away,  how 
many  had  I  left  ? 

I  had  two  marbles,  my  brother  gave  me 
one,  and  my  sister  gave  me  another; 
how  many  had  I  then  ? 

Two  and  one  are  how  many  ?  Three  and 
one  are  how  many  ?  etc. 

In  all  of  this  work,  and  as  far  up  as  the  children  are 
able  to  do  it  successfully,  we  should  have  them  learn  to 
recognize  perceptively  the  groups  of  objects  illustrative  of 
the  various  numbers,  without  counting  them.  This  act 
should  follow  the  act  of  building  up  the  real  number 
notion  by  counting. 

In  all  of  the  above  work  it  should  be  noted  that  com- 
binations and  separations  have  been  made  by  one  unit  at 
a  time.  We  need  not  hurry  to  introduce  written  work 
in  number  by  means  of  arithmetical  figures.  The  cir- 
cumstances of  most  schools  will  force  us  to  the  use  of 
the  figures  quite  early  enough,  because  with  them  so 
large  a  field  of  busy  work  is  opened.  We  should  strive, 
however,  to  impress  thoroughly  the  true  number  idea 
before  we  use  the  figures,  which  are  merely  the  signs  of 
numbers. 

Before   introducing   the   figures,  teach   the   children 


ARITHMETIC,  335 

orally  to  add  to,  and  take  from,  a  number  a  definite  group 
of  units  (addition  and  subtraction). 

This  will  enable  you  to  teach  the  figures  by  means  of 
intelligible  problems  (which  have  a  real  and  vital  interest 
attached  to  them),  and  not  merely  as  ten  arbitrary  signs 
to  be  remembered.  The  figures  may  then  be  taught  in 
the  order  of  their  difficulty,  and  the  other  arithmetical 
signs  be  introduced  gradually. 

The  following  order  is  recommended,  the  figures  first 
being  presented  through  the  medium  of  suitable  concrete 
problems :  — 

2  and  4  are  6. 

5  and  2  are  7. 

6  and  3  are  9. 
5  and  3  are  8. 

2  -f-  4  are  6. 
5  +  2  =  7,  etc. 

When  all  the  figures  have  thus  been  introduced,  have 
them  solve  problems  in  addition  and  subtraction  of  a 
more  complex  nature  than  the  ones  given  above ;  thus  :  — 

4  +  3  +  2  =  ? 

8  —  3  —  4==? 

9—2+3—4=? 

Throughout  this  discussion  the  writer  regards  addition 
and  subtraction  as  the  primary  and  fundamental  opera- 
tions in  number.  These  may  then  be  taught  simultane- 
ously (in  the  oral  work),  and  should  be  so  presented, 
because  in  this  way  the  child  can  learn  their  relation,  and 
be  developing  from  the  start  his  power  of  comparison,  — 


336  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

the  faculty  needed  in  the  mastery  of  mathematics,  Mul- 
tiplication and  division,  introduced  at  the  beginning,  will 
not  aid  the  learner,  and  they  may  hinder  him  by  confus- 
ing him.  When  the  child  becomes  quite  proficient  in 
the  work  of  written  addition  and  subtraction,  he  may 
with  greatest  profit  have  multiplication  and  division  in- 
troduced ;  multiplication  may  then  be  viewed  as  a  special 
instance  of  addition,  and  division  be  viewed  either  as  a 
special  instance  of  subtraction,  or  as  the  reverse  of  mul- 
tiplication. They  are  in  reality  only  peculiar  instances 
of  combinations  and  separations  in  numbers,  and  their 
peculiarities  can  best  be  pointed  out  after  the  learners 
are  familiar  with  the  more  general  processes  of  combina-x 
tion  and  separation  (addition  and  subtraction). 

Assuming,  then,  that  the  learners  are  quite  proficient 
in  the  processes  of  addition  and  subtraction,  the  forward 
counting  by  twos  (multiplication)  may  be  commenced ; 
then  by  threes,  fours,  fives.  Work  in  addition  and  sub- 
traction should  be  extended.  As  a  general  guide,  let  it 
be  understood  that  all  operations  taught  in  the  past  will 
be  continued  as  future  ones  are  presented. 

To  introduce  this  step  of  counting  by  twos,  objects 
may  be  necessary;  if  so,  let  it  pass  through  the  three 
parts  indicated  above  for  the  early  oral  work.  In  ex- 
pressing it  upon  the  board  (second  part)  we  might  use 
squares  as  follows  :  — 


nn 
nn 

nn 
nn 
nn 

nn 
nn 
nn 
nn 

nnnnn 
nnnnn 

ARITHMETIC.  337 

Regarding  these  first  as  problems  in  addition,  we  may 
bring  out  that  — 

2  +  2=?  2  +  2  +  2  +  2  =  ? 

2+2+2=?  2+2+2+2+2=? 

Then  teach  the  corresponding  operations  in  multipli- 
cation ;  namely,  — 

2  twos  =  ?     3  twos  =  ?     4  twos  =  ?     5  twos  =  ? 

From  this  it  is  easy  to  impress  the  different  parallel 
expressions,  — 

2  twos  =  4  ;     2  times  2  =  4;     2  multiplied  by  2  =  4. 

3  twos  =  6  ;     3  times  2  =  6;     2  multiplied  by  3  =  6. 

This  work  may  be  done  through  the  medium  of  concrete 
problems  in  which  the  learners  will  be  required  to  make 
successive  additions  of  twos  (or  threes),  and  also  to  note 
the  number  of  times  two  is  taken. 

Illustration.  —  If  John  has  two  cents  and  his  father 
gives  him  two  cents  more,  how  many  cents  does  John 
have  ?  2  +  2  =  4. 

If  a  boy  spends  two  cents  each  time  he  goes  to  the 
store,  and  he  goes  to  the  store  three  times,  how  many 
cents  will  he  spend  in  all  ?  2X3  =  6. 

Numerous  concrete  problems  are  recommended  for 
little  people,  because  through  them  we  can  exercise  the 
child's  number  knowledge  upon  matters  which  constitute 
his  natural  interests.  Number  work  is  thus  robbed  of 
much  of  its  unnecessary  drudgery,  and,  with  his  interest 
aroused,  we  can  drill  the  child  to  better  purpose  through 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

the  medium  of  abstract  problems.  This  will  afford  a 
profitable  saving  of  time  and  energy. 

In  order  to  render  this  learning  act  as  simple  as  possi- 
ble, it  is  generally  thought  best  to  confine  the  learner's 
effort  to  one  "line  of  tables"  at  a  time.  In  making 
clear  to  him  the  nature  of  multiplication  as  a  process, 
this  will  not  be  necessary ;  but,  when  an  effort  is  made 
to  systematize  his  knowledge  of  multiplication,  the  "  two 
line  "  of  tables  should  be  learned  first  (up  to  the  limit  of 
the  numbers  with  which  work  is  being  done  —  in  this 
case,  five  twos,  and  then  he  should  take  up  the  work  by 
threes,  fours,  and  fives. 

The  material  of  multiplication  within  the  limit  of  ten 
is  contained  in  the  following  :  — 

2x2       3x2       4x2       5x2 
2x3       3x3 
2x4 
2  x  5 

After  this  forward  counting  by  groups  of  units  (twos, 
threes,  etc.)  has  become  well  fixed,  we  should  begin  the 
backward  counting  by  the  same  groups  (division). 

Problem  to  show  the  need  and  the  meaning  of  division  : 

A  boy  wrote  letters  on  eight  sheets  of  paper ;  he  used 
2  sheets  for  each  letter.  How  many  letters  did  he  write  ? 

Solution.  —  When  he  wrote  one  letter  he  had  left  8 
sheets  —  2  sheets  =  6  sheets. 

When  he  wrote  two  letters  he  had  left  6  sheets  —  2 
sheets  =  4  sheets. 

When  he  wrote  three  letters  he  had  left  4  sheets  - 
2  sheets  =  2  sheets. 


ARITHMETIC.  339 

When  he  wrote  four  letters  he  had  left  2  sheets  —  2 
sheets  =  o  sheets. 

Answer,  4  letters. 

Lead  the  children  to  see  the  reason  for  subtracting 
two  each  time,  to  see  that  the  number  of  times  two  is 
subtracted  is  the  same  as  the  number  of  letters  that  can 
be  written,  and  to  know  that  numerically  this  is  the  same 
as  the  number  of  twos  in  eight.  By  so  doing  we  make 
use  of  their  knowledge  of  subtraction,  and  also  that  of 
multiplication  in  the  effort  to  make  them  understand 
division.  A  very  good  general  rule  in  teaching  is  to  give 
a  learner  many-sided  views  of  a  thing,  by  showing  him 
how  it  stands  related  to  various  things  he  already  knows. 
No  confusion  need  result  if  only  these  different  relations 
are  approached  one  at  a  time. 

We  must  never  make  the  mistake  of  thinking  that 
because  arithmetic  makes  its  chief  appeal  to  the  reason- 
ing powers  of  a  learner,  its  operations  need  not,  therefore, 
be  often  repeated,  if  only  they  are  once  understood. 
These  truths  need  to  be  impressed  upon  the  memory 
also,  and  we  need  to  increase  our  skill  in  the  use  of  them. 
These  two  ends  can  be  accomplished  only  by  frequent 
jisc,  and  we  should  therefore  have  very  many  problems 
worked.  For  this  purpose,  most  of  the  problems  used 
should  be  relatively  simple ;  problems  that  are  so  compli- 
cated as  to  be  difficult  for  the  child  to  unravel  should  be 
given  as  a  means  of  strengthening  his  power  of  thought, 
but  not  for  the  purpose  of  impressing,  or  fully  clearing 
up,  an  arithmetical  truth. 


340  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

Course  with  Numbers  above  Ten. 

The  work  of  this  course  should  be  kept  chiefly  within 
the  limit  of  one  hundred ;  since,  within  that  range,  we 
can  best  illustrate  objectively  when  necessary,  and  we 
can  emphasize  the  elements  of  the  system  without  dissi- 
pating the  learner's  energies  in  handling  large,  and 
therefore  difficult,  numbers. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  this  stage  of  the  work  is 
to  acquaint  the  learner  with  the  plan  of  "grouping," 
whenever  ten  is  reached.  This  can  be  done  by  merely 
grouping  the  sticks  that  have  been  used  in  number  teach- 
ing, and  at  the  same  time  telling  the  child  that  we  find 
it  most  convenient,  for  our  future  work,  to  put  into 
groups  things  that  are  being  counted  whenever  we  get 
ten  things,  and  to  call  the  number  "  a  ten."  Then  have 
him  count  orally  the  objects  which  you  handle  before 
him  ;  as,  one  ten  and  one,  one  ten  and  two,  etc. ;  two  tens 
and  one,  two  tens  and  two,  etc. 

When  this  truth  of  number  is  grasped  so  that  the 
child  can  count  objects  readily  by  the  above  scientific 
method,  he  should  be  shown  how  to  write  the  numbers 
he  has  just  been  giving  orally. 

In  the  first  course  in  number,  the  positions  of  the 
figures  had  no  significance.  Each  figure  stood  arbitrarily 
for  a  given  number,  and  all  the  child  could  do  was  to 
remember  the  facts.  In  this  stage  of  the  work  we  must 
make  clear  to  him  that  those  ten  characters  are  all  he 
will  ever  need  to  learn ;  but  that  they  must  have  different 
meanings  attached  to  them  when  they  occur  in  different 
positions, 


ARITHMETIC.  34 1 

This  "  place  value  "  of  figures  can  probably  be  shown 
best  by  writing  upon  the  board  a  few  of  the  numbers  of 
one  figure  each,  as,— 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

Now,  with  the  objects  in  hand,  arranged  as  a  ten  and 
two,  hold  these  against  the  board  and  just  below  the 
column  of  figures  —  the  ten  to  the  left  of  the  column, 
and  the  two  in  line  with  the  column.  Then,  getting  the 
children  to  tell  you  the  figure  which  represents  the  ten, 
and  the  figure  which  represents  the  two,  place  them 
upon  the  board  in  their  proper  positions,  as, 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

12 

This  makes  plain  the  place  value  of  figures,  provided 
there  is  a  column  of  them  to  show  the  place.  Suppose 
now  we  wish  to  represent  simply  a  ten  without  any  extra 
units.  The  child  can  easily  be  led  to  see  that  it  should 
go  under  the  i,  as,— 

5 
6 


342  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

8 

9 
12 
I 

He  has  yet  one  important  item  to  learn ;  namely,  how 
to  represent  this  place  value  when  we  wish  to  write  a  ten 
without  the  presence  of  any  other  numbers.  For  this, 
we  erase  all  but  the  last  from  the  board  leaving  simply 
i. 

What  did  we  express  when  we  put  this  upon  the 
board  ?  A  ten.  In  which  place  (or  column)  did  we  put 
it,  in  representing  a  ten  ?  The  second.  Now,  since  all 
else  is  erased  from  the  board,  which  place  does  it  occupy  ? 
The  first,  because  there  is  but  one  place  indicated.  If 
you  should  see  this  in  a  book  what  would  you  take  it  to 
mean  ?  One  unit.  Now,  in  order  to  have  it  represent 
a  ten,  we  must  get  it  into  the  second  place ;  this  can  be 
done  only  by  filling  the  first  place  with  a  figure  (o)  which 
means  "not  any,"  and  which  is  called  a  cipher,  as  10. 

Now  read  the  following  :  — 

13 
16 

15 
10 

17 
20 
26 
30 

14 
etc. 


ARITHMETIC.  343 

It  is  believed  that  some  such  device  as  that  given 
above  is  better  than  the  plan  of  simply  stating  to  the 
child  the  truths  involved.  This  plan  insures  his  thinking 
with  you  through  the  process,  and  thus  realizing  the  need 
of  the  cipher,  to  indicate  the  place  value  of  other  figures, 
at  times  when  we  have  no  occasion  for  significant  figures 
in  such  places ;  the  statement  permits  him  to  do  such 
thinking,  but  it  does  not  require  him  to  do  it. 

It  is  important  now  that  he  should  learn  how  to  write 
and  name  in  order  all  the  numbers  from  I  to  I  oo.  Most 
of  this  he  can  do  for  himself.  Write  with  him  the  fol- 
lowing, putting  them  in  columns  :  — 

1  7       13       19 

2  8          14          20 

3  9       15       21 

4  10       16       22 

5  ii       17       23 

6  12       18       24 

«K 

Call  to  his  attention  the  system  upon  which  these  are 
made,  emphasizing  the  fact  that  each  time  he  gets  ten 
he  puts  them  together,  thus  making  a  new  ten,  and  then 
let  him  make  the  rest  as  far  up  as  he  can  go.  Any  child 
of  average  intelligence,  if  he  has  been  wisely  taught  the 
basic  elements,  can  make  the  remainder  of  the  set  up  to 
and  including  99.  He  may  not  discover  how  to  write 
100,  but  it  will  take  only  a  hint.  After  that,  there  is 
nothing  more  to  learn  in  writing  numbers  excepting  the 
higher  groups,  which,  with  their  names  and  their  places 
in  the  written  order,  should  be  introduced  one  by  one, 


344  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

There  is  no  hurry  for  this,  however,  and  they  had  better 
not  be  taken  up  until  the  child  is  familiar  with  the  four 
"  fundamental  operations,"  done  in  writing,  upon  numbers 
requiring  not  more  than  the  three  columns. 

At  this  stage,  written  work  should  predominate  over 
oral  work,  the  latter  being  employed  generally  as  a 
means  of  introducing  the  several  steps.  It  is  evident 
that  when  written  work  is  being  done,  the  various  opera- 
tions (addition  and  substraction,  or  multiplication  and 
division)  cannot  be  presented  simultaneously.  Now  we 
must  turn  our  attention  away  from  the  study  of  a  certain 
number,  upon  which  the  various  operations  may  be  em- 
ployed, and  direct  it  to  the  operations  themselves,  re- 
garded as  systems  of  treating  all  numbers.  Accordingly, 
in  this  stage  of  predominating  written  work,  we  should 
teach  addition,  then  subtraction,  multiplication,  division, 
fractions,  etc.,  as  so  many  distinct  systems  of  operations 
with  numbers.  At  no  stage  of  the  work  should  we  fail 
to  point  out  the  relations  of  the  several  systems  of 
operations  to  each  other. 

The  one  difficulty  in  written  addition,  that  of  "  carry- 
ing to  the  next  column,"  can  be  made  very  plain  by 
means  of  objects.  Make  combinations  that  exceed  ten 
and  then  repeat  these  in  parallel  written  problems. 
With  his  previous  knowledge  of  writing  numbers,  and  his 
mastery  of  the  law  of  putting  units  into  groups,  whenever 
he  gets  ten  units,  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  compre- 
hend the  law  of  putting  down  the  right-hand  figure 
under  the  column  that  is  being  added,  and  carrying  the 
remaining  ones  to  the  next  column  to  be  added  to  it. 
The  teacher  must  make  clear  to  himself  that  this  mode 


ARITHMETIC  345 

of  procedure  does  not  cause  him  to  add  the  quantity  in 
question  twice.  We  seem  to  add  the  first  column  and 
thus  get  the  quantity  to  carry,  then  we  add  this  quantity 
to  the  second  column ;  is  it  thereby  added  twice  ? 

Problems  in  written  addition  should  be  graduated  so 
as  to  introduce  but  one  difficulty  at  a  time ;  thus :  — 

4         8         23          17 
3         4         42         49 

Note  that  each  one  of  these  has  in  it  a  difficulty  that 
does  not  appear  in  the  one  before  it ;  note  also  that  all 
the  difficulties  of  written  addition  (excepting  those  which 
arise  from  the  unwieldy  size  of  numbers)  are  here 
represented. 

Children  should  have  much  practice  work  in  written 
addition.  When  we  have  thus  secured  accuracy  in  their 
operations,  we  should  drill  them  to  secure  rapidity.  The 
following  devices  are  recommended  for  rapid  addition : 
columns  of  figures  to  be  added  upwards  or  downwards, 
the  speed  to  be  determined  by  the  teacher  in  pointing ; 
abstract  problems  on  cards,  to  be  presented  momentarily 
to  the  class,  and  answers  to  be  given  as  soon  as  possible ; 
figures  in  various  designs  so  you  can  skip  about,  as 

6     8     4 

557,  the  understanding  being  that  each  number 

9     2     3 

pointed  to  is  to  be  added  to  the  five ;  counting  by  twos, 
threes,  fours,  etc.,  making  as  many  different  series  of 
sums  with  each  as  possible,  thus  :  — r 


346  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

2  j       I,     3,     S»    7,       9>     !I>     J3>     I5»     17 

(     2,  4,  6,  8,   10,   12,    14,    1 6,   1 8,  etc. 
(    i,  4,  7,   10,   13,   1 6,   19,  22,  25, 

3  2,  5,  8,   n,   14,    17,  20,  23,  26, 

(    3,  6,  9,    12,    15,   1 8,   21,   24,   27,  etc. 


Notice,  in  this  last  exercise,  that  there  are  as  many 
series  of  sums  possible  on  each  base  as  there  are  units 
in  the  base.  This  will  reveal  the  amount  of  work  possi- 
ble for  drill  exercises.  Notice  further  that  the  one 
series  which  pupils  use  most  frequently  (the  one  which 
starts  with  the  base)  is  the  only  one  that  is  of  no  especial 
value  in  this  exercise,  as  it  is  the  one  that  appears  as  the 
products  of  the  different  lines  of  the  multiplication  table. 
In  all  these  exercises  for  speed  let  the  effort  be  intense, 
of  short  duration,  and  regularly  done.  Increase  the 
speed  gradually. 

Work  in  written  subtraction  can  be  introduced,  if 
need  be,  by  the  aid  of  objects.  The  one  difficulty  here 
is  that  of  "  borrowing."  (The  wisdom  of  using  the  term 
"  borrow  "  will  not  be  called  in  question  here  ;  it  is  a  term 
that  those  who  read  will  understand,  and  for  that  reason 
it  is  used.)  Suppose  we  take  sticks  illustrating  a  ten 
and  two ;  from  these  we  wish  to  subtract  seven.  The 
child  will  readily  see  that  the  seven  cannot  be  taken 
from  the  two ;  we  must  therefore  open  the  bundle  of 
ten  and,  treating  them  now  as  units,  we  have  twelve. 
(This  last  is  a  term  that  pupils  long  ago  became  familiar 
with,  as  the  common  form  of  expression  is  supposed  to 
have  been  introduced  when  it  became  evident  that  the 
ideas,  distinctly  stated  by  the  scientific  form  of  expres- 


ARITHMETIC.  347 

sion,  were  impressed.)  From  the  twelve  we  now  take 
the  seven,  and  we  have  five  remaining.  Representing 
this  process  now  in  figures,  we  can  lead  him  to  see  that 
we  had  to  "borrow"  the  one  from  the  tens  column  and 
treat  it  in  the  units  column  as  ten. 

Graduated    problems    in    written    subtraction    are   as 
follows :  — 

8    26    42    50    203 
3    13    18    24     47 


Drill  in  rapid  work. 

Give  frequent  exercises  in  concrete  problems,  having 
pupils  make  many  of  the  problems.  In  this  work  demand 
problems  about  things  as  they  are.  This  will  afford  an 
opportunity  for  impressing  numerous  useful  facts.  For 
example,  do  not  let  a  child  speak  of  selling  corn  by  the 
ounce,  carpet  by  the  square  inch,  or  either  of  them  at 
preposterous  rates.  When  they  reach  that  stage  of  the 
work  it  is  a  wise  thing  to  have  pupils  consult  the  daily 
papers  for  the  quotations  of  goods  that  are  on  the 
market,  and  to  construct  their  problems  upon  that  basis. 
The  same  may  be  done  later  on  with  stocks,  exchange, 
etc. 

When  written  multiplication  is  to  be  taken  up,  the 
child  must  know  the  multiplication  table.  This  he 
should  make  for  himself  after  having  been  shown  the 
plan,  subject  to  which  it  is  constructed.  Such  items  as 
stopping  each  line  at  1 2,  and  the  entire  table  at  1 2  x  12, 
he  must  be  told.  The  table  should  be  committed  to 
memory,  after  it  is  thus  made,  so  that  the  child  can  say 
it  forward  and  backward,  or  promiscuously. 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 


In  written  multiplication  the  following  is  offered  as  a 
graduated  set  of  problems  showing  the  different  elements 
of  difficulty  : 


407       284 
30       203 


4 

2 

9 

3 

23 

2 

86 
4 

40 
8 

403 

26 

Notice  the  elements  of  difficulty  that  are  in  multipli- 
cand, multiplier,  and  product,  in  each  of  the  above 
problems. 

One  more  point  it  is  important  to  notice  in  written 
multiplication.  In  addition  we  give,  as  a  general  guide 
in  setting  down  numbers  to  be  added,  that  units  of  the 
same  order  shall  be  placed  in  the  same  column ;  this 
brings  the  numbers  to  be  added  into  a  straight  column 
on  the  right,  the  units  column ;  as 

482 

7i 
5296 

3 
427 


When  we  come  to  setting  down  the  partial  products  in 
multiplication,  for  the  purpose  of  adding  them,  it  looks 
as  if  we  violate  the  above  general  law  for  addition.  Let 
the  teacher  see  clearly  why  this  is,  and  be  ready  to  make 
this  apparent  error  intelligible  to  the  child. 

Written  division  is  the  great  stumbling-block  in  these 
earlier  stages  of  arithmetical  work.  It  is  the  writer's 


ARITHMETIC.  349 

belief  that  this  serious  difficulty  can  be  escaped,  if  we 
will  attend  to  impressing  fully  the  previous  difficulties, 
one  at  a  time,  and  then  present  the  matter  in  a  different 
order  from  that  which  is  usually  followed. 

Written  division  is  generally  taught  first  as  "  short 
division."  This  is  doubtless  due  to  the  belief  that  it  is 
simpler,  because  the  expression  of  it  in  the  written  form 
is  not  so  complicated  as  the  other;  but  that  apparent 
advantage  is  very  much  reduced  when  we  remember  that 
the  written  expression  does  not  represent  all  the  steps 
in  the  necessary  mental  operations.  "  Long  division  " 
should  be  taught  first,  therefore,  and  the  abbreviated 
form  should  be  taken  up  later. 

When  the  various  operations  upon  fractions  are  being 
taught,  a  very  excellent  device  for  aiding  the  learner's 
understanding  is  the  diagram,  or  the  folded  or  cut  paper. 
Great  importance  attaches  here,  as  in  arithmetical  opera- 
tions generally,  to  having  the  base  clearly  before  the 
learner's  mind. 

In  denominate  numbers  the  child  should  be  led  to  see 
that  the  operations  performed  upon  them  are  identical  in 
character  with  the  corresponding  operations  upon  abstract 
numbers.  In  addition,  for  instance,  we  do  just  the  same 
work  originally  in  dealing  with  abstract  numbers  as  we  do 
in  dealing  with  denominate  numbers.  The  varying  units 
of  one  denomination  that  are  required  to  make  one  unit 
of  the  next  higher  denomination  account  for  all  the 
apparent  increase  of  complexity  in  addition  of  denomi- 
nate numbers. 

Indeed,  if  we  would  express  all  the  elements  which 
we  think  in  the  two  cases,  they  would  look  alike ;  as,  — 


350 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 


10 

10 

10 

Thousands, 

Hundreds, 

Tens, 

Units. 

i 

4 

3 

7 

2 

7 

9 

4 

5  1-2 

3 

12 

Rods, 

Yards, 

Feet, 

Inches. 

i 

4 

2 

5 

8 

3 

2 

9 

In  abstract  numbers  we  are  enabled  to  abbreviate  the 
process  and  say  simply,  "  Put  down  the  right-hand  figure 
'and  carry  the  rest  to  the  next  column,"  because  of  the 
following  conditions  :  — 

In  reducing  from  one  denomination  to  another  our 
divisor  is  always  ten. 

This  always  gives  us  a  quotient  (the  part  that  we  carry 
to  the  next  column),  which  is  expressed  by  all  the  figures 
of  the  given  number  excepting  the  last  right-hand  one, 
and  a  remainder  (the  part  which  is  set  down  under  the 
column  being  added),  which  is  expressed  by  this  last 
right-hand  figure. 

Teachers  have  become  so  accustomed  to  this  short- 
ened form  that  they  seem  to  have  overlooked  the  fact 
that  it  is  an  abbreviation. 

One  other  item  needs  attention  in  order  that  teachers 
may  appreciate  the  true  spirit  of  teaching  in  arithmetic, 
as  in  all  the  mathematics.  It  is  the  study  of  rules. 
Whether  or  not  they  should  be  committed  to  memory, 
and  whether  or  not  we  should  ever  work  by  rule,  are 
fruitful  subjects  of  debate. 


ARITHMETIC.  351 

That  the  rules  should  be  thoroughly  comprehended 
admits  of  no  question.  It  seems  equally  clear  that  un- 
less the  learner's  ability  to  express  their  truth  in  concise 
and  exact  language  is  great,  they  should,  after  they  are 
comprehended,  be  committed  to  memory.  And  further- 
more, it  seems  evident  that  if  learners  need  training  in 
exact  and  pointed  language,  nothing  will  help  more  in 
this,  provided  they  think,  than  filling  the  memory  with 
excellent  models  of  such  language,  in  which  the  mathe- 
matical sciences  abound. 

Concerning  the  question  of  whether  or  not  we  should 
work  by  rule,  it  might  be  said  that  the  rule  was  made 
for  that  very  purpose.  No  one  will  seriously  argue  that 
pupils  should  blindly  apply  rules  they  do  not  understand. 
But  when  understood,  one  of  the  very  missions  of  the 
rule  is  to  save  the  student  from  the  necessity  of  repeat- 
ing all  the  longer  thought  processes  with  each  new 
problem. 

In  regard  to  comprehending  the  rules  of  arithmetic,  it 
is  given  as  the  writer's  opinion  that  very  much  more 
effort  should  be  directed  to  this  end  than  is  usually  the 
case.  Just  as  pupils  should  discuss  the  theory  of  a  case 
in  physics  (and  solve  problems  as  a  means  of  proving 
that  they  understand  it),  so  should  they  discuss  the  rules 
and  principles  in  arithmetic.  It  is  understood  that  the 
rule  is  a  set  of  directions  for  the  performance  of  opera- 
tions ;  but  it  is  also  remembered  that  there  are  distinct 
reasons  for  all  such  directions. 

The  discussion  of  a  rule  (or  principle),  not  the  recita- 
tion of  its  language,  should  frequently  constitute  the 
entire  work  of  a  recitation.  Many  workers  seem  to 


352  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

think  that  a  learner  knows  a  case  in  arithmetic  only 
when  he  can  solve  all  the  problems  that  are  given  under 
it.  They  take  this  as  evidence  that  he  comprehends  the 
principles  and  rules.  It  would  be  nearer  the  truth  to 
assert  that  he  is  master  of  a  case  in  arithmetic  when  he 
can  give  a  masterly  discussion  of  the  principles  and  rules 
involved  in  it,  even  if  he  can  occasionally  be  puzzled 
by  some  of  its  problems.  The  problems  constitute  occa- 
sions for  applying  the  truth  thus  learned  and,  though 
students  should  be  able  to  solve  all  ordinary  problems 
of  a  case,  they  might  fairly  be  regarded  as  excellent 
students  of  the  subject,  and  yet  be  puzzled  with  problems 
involving  new  and  untried  conditions,  which  are  likely  to 
continue  to  the  end  of  time. 


SPECIAL  ARTS.  353 


CHAPTER    XXII. 
SPECIAL   ARTS. 

THERE  are  several  of  the  special  art  subjects  which 
still  need  brief  consideration.  They  are  subjects  which, 
in  the  main,  do  not  submit  to  the  processes  of  teaching 
required  in  the  case  of  a  body  of  truth  that  is  to  be  com- 
prehended ;  they  demand  rather  the  employment  of  such 
devices  as  will  develop  within  the  body  a  certain  form  of 
skill.  In  this  work  much  will  be  gained  by  presenting 
the  elements  of  the  several  subjects  in  the  best  order,  as 
established  by  experience  and  the  consideration  of  their 
psychology. 

The  subjects  to  be  treated  are  writing,  drawing,  and 
vocal  music,  —  subjects  which  in  the  very  best  schools 
are  treated  by  specialists,  but  which  in  all  schools  must 
be  done  as  well  as  possible  by  the  teachers  provided. 

Writing. 

Without  entering  into  an  exhaustive  discussion  of  the 
merits  of  the  several  systems  of  penmanship,  the  author 
gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  vertical  system  is  to  be 
preferred,  and  for  the  following  reasons  :  — 

i .  The  tendency  on  the  part  of  children  is  toward  the 
vertical  script ;  and  business  men,  when  they  get  beyond 
the  influence  of  the  school  where  they  were  taught  the 
slant,  tend  to  revert  to  the  vertical. 


354  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

2.  The    vertical    letters    more    nearly    resemble    the 
printed  ones,  and  are  more  legible. 

3.  Vertical  writing  may  be  acquired  in  less  time  than 
the  slant. 

4.  There  are  no  hygienic  arguments  against  it. 

5.  The  International  Congress  of  Hygiene  favored  it 
in  1891  by  a  unanimous  vote. 

In  the  writing  class  two  things  are  to  be  accomplished. 
We  must  get  a  good  product ;  and  we  must  educate  the 
child  to  produce  it  in  a  good  way.  To  secure  these  ends 
the  following  considerations  are  offered  :  — 

1.  Let  the  child  begin  the  art   of  writing  upon   the 
blackboard.     The  object  of  this  is  to  enable  him  to  make 
the  letters  very  large    (even  a  foot  high),  and  with  a 
swinging  movement  of  the  entire  arm.     This  will  result 
in  his  writing  a  full,  round  hand  when  he  writes  upon 
paper.     The  one-space  letters  may  with  profit  be  made 
an  inch  high    when  the    child  first  writes  upon   paper. 
These  should  gradually  be  reduced  in  size  until  he  writes 
a  plain    hand  of  convenient   size.     In  this  way  we  can 
prevent  the  cramped  writing,  so  common  among  school 
children,  which  usually  results  from  finger  movements. 

2.  In  presenting,  upon  board  or  paper,  the  model  for 
the  child  to  follow,  the  teacher  should  generally  make 
it  before  the  class.     This  will  enable  the  children  to  see 
how  it  is  to  be  done,  at  the  same  time  that  they  see  what 
is  to  be  done.     Only  after  this  is   learned   should  the 
model  be  presented  ready-made. 

3.  In  practice  it  is  well  to  have  the  child  first  trace 
(not  with  painful  exactness,  but  with  a  free  movement) 
the  letters  that  the  teacher  has  made.     This  will  enable 


SPECIAL    ARTS.  355 

him  to  get  the  movement  required  for  making  the  letter 
and  to  do  it  with  the  least  number  of  disturbing  ele- 
ments. When  this  has  been  accomplished  he  may  work 
with  the  teacher's  model  before  him  or  in  obedience  to 
the  model  held  in  his  own  mind. 

4.  The  best  position  for  the  child,  when  writing  at  a 
desk,  is  to    sit  facing  the  desk,  with  both  feet  resting 
easily  upon  the  floor,  both  arms  upon  the  desk  (about 
two  thirds  of   the    forearm   should   be   upon  the  desk) 
and    the    paper    straight    before    him    with    its    center 
about  on  the  median  line  of  the  body.     This  prevents 
the  lifting  of  the  shoulders,  the  twisting  of  the  head,  or 
any  condition  that  might  produce  such  injuries  to  the 
eye  or  spine  as  are  usually  attributed  to  the  writing  class. 

5.  Do  not  insist  too  rigidly  upon  having  all  children 
hold  the  pen  or  pencil  alike.     Differences  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  hand  are  as  striking  as  in  any  other  portion 
of  the  body.     A  very  good  plan  is  to  have  the  child 
stand  or  sit  with  the  hands  dropped  to  the  side  of  the 
body;  the  hand  will  then  be  slightly  curved  with  the 
concave  part  toward  the  body.      Now  raise  the  hand, 
bending  the  arm  at  the  elbow,  and,  when  above  the  desk 
top,  place  the  pencil  within  its  grasp.     The  concave  part 
will  be  directed  toward  the  left,  and  in  writing  the  hand 
will  rest  on  the  end  and  side  of  the  little  finger.     The 
tendency  to  "  writer's  cramp "  will  be  greatly  reduced 
if  this  freedom  is  allowed,  and  the  writing  itself  will  be 
smooth  in  consequence. 

6.  In  this,  as  in  every  art,  secure  accuracy  and  neat- 
ness  first ;    then    labor   to    increase    the   speed.     Good 
habits  in  these  particulars  can    be   secured    only  upon 


356  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

condition  that  teachers  insist  upon  good  writing  whenever 
writing  is  done.  The  child  can  undo  more  of  habit  in  a 
day  by  slovenly  written  work  in  other  classes  than  he 
can  remedy  in  a  week  in  the  writing  class. 

Drawing. 

In  this  work  also  there  are  two  distinct  ends  to  be 
secured,  —  (i)  muscle  control  in  the  form  of  skill,  and 
(2)  the  ability  to  make  pictures. 

The  first  of  these  will  require  drill  exercises  wherein 
the  mind  of  the  learner  should  be  directed,  not  to  the 
objective  product  that  is  being  secured,  but  to  the  reflex 
effect  that  the  exercise  is  producing  upon  his  muscles. 
When  he  can  begin  to  realize  that  his  ability  to  do  the 
thing  required  is  growing  from  day  to  day,  we  may  be 
sure  that  he  is  making  substantial  progress. 

This  drill  should  not  be  long  continued  at  any  one 
time,  but  should  be  intense  and  exacting  while  it  lasts. 
The  exercises  should  be  carefully  graded,  beginning  with 
easy,  swinging  movements,  required  for  making  circles 
toward  the  right  and  toward  the  left,  and  continuing  up 
through  the  spiral,  scroll,  etc.,  each  time  using  in  the 
next  higher  step  the  elements  of  power  that  have  been 
developed  in  the  step  below. 

Power  is  greatly  increased,  time  is  saved,  and  more 
complete  symmetry  is  secured  if  this  drill  exercise  calls 
into  play  both  hands,  instead  of  only  the  writing  hand. 
The  work  may  be  done  with  one  hand ;  the  product 
then  matched  with  the  other  hand.  Later,  the  two 
hands  may  be  employed  simultaneously.  The  first 
movements  may  be  uniform  ones,  —  upward  and  out- 


SPECIAL    ARTS.  357 

ward  together,  or  upward  and   inward   together;  then 
may  come  movements  in  opposite  directions,  etc. 
Illustration.  — 


LEFT    HAND.  RIGHT    HAND. 

(I) 


C    J^-  Start.  Start.  ^T  ^\ 

O 

fV 

(      J^- Start.  Start.-/      J 


(2)  Start.  -V         \  (         JlStart 

(3)  (        )r  Start.  Start- 
er 


When  we  are  laboring  at  the  second  part  of  this 
work  —  the  production  of  pictures  —  we  should  at  the 
outset  undertake  to  represent  solids  (the  three  dimen- 
sions) on  the  plane  surface.  All  the  contending  schools 
seem  at  last  united  upon  this  point ;  namely,  that  we 
should  not  start  by  teaching  a  child  to  draw  lines,  then 
have  him  draw  surfaces,  and  finally  reach  the  represen- 
tation of  real  things  in  three  dimensions. 

The  one  aim  of  drawing  is  to  make  in  two  dimensions 
that  which  will  look  like  the  real  thing  which  has  three 
dimensions.  To  this  task,  therefore,  we  should  betake 
ourselves  at  once.  The  need  of  lines  and  surfaces,  as 
the  means  whereby  this  can  be  done,  will  thus  be  re- 
vealed to  the  learner.  In  this  way  he  will  get  an  intelli- 
gent appreciation  of  them  from  the  start.  As  letters 
have  no  language  significance  excepting  as  the  parts  of 


SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

words,  so  lines  have  no  significance  for  the  student  of 
drawing  excepting  as  the  parts  of  solids,  which  are  the 
realities  he  is  endeavoring  to  represent.  In  like  man- 
ner, as  letters  are  most  intelligently  learned  through  the 
medium  of  significant  words  in  which  they  are  found,  so 
may  lines  be  most  intelligently  learned  through  the 
medium  of  the  solids  in  which  they  are  found. 

But  while  the  different  schools  of  drawing  are  agreed 
upon  this  point,  they  are  not  agreed  as  to  whether  these 
solids  should  be  the  type  solids  (cubes,  spheres,  cylinders, 
etc.)  or  the  common  objects  of  the  material  world  which 
closely  approximate  these  type  forms  (boxes,  oranges, 
stovepipes,  etc.). 

The  writer  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  earliest 
work  should  be  done  from  the  simpler  common  objects, 
because  of  the  greater  interest  children  have  in  them,  and 
because  the  type  forms  are  representatives  of  highly 
developed  notions  which  can  best  be  reached  by  proceed- 
ing from  the  "  vague  to  the  definite." 

The  work  in  color  can  be  arranged  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  seasons.  Autumn  leaves  may  be 
taken  in  their  season  ;  corn  ears,  and  other  farm  prod- 
ucts, in  theirs  ;  and  the  various  flowers,  in  theirs.  This 
will  afford  an  opportunity  for  proper  correlation  of  sub- 
jects, and  arouse  a  natural  interest  in  the  subject  directly 
in  hand. 

Vocal  Music. 

It  is  believed  that  the  greatest  good  can  be  accom- 
plished in  this  connection  by  quoting  at  length  the  report 
of  the  United  States  Commission  of  Education  for 


SPECIAL    ARTS.  359 

1 895-96,  showing  what  experience  in  German  schools 
has  established.  Dr.  G.  A.  Lindner,  in  his  "  Cyclopedia 
of  Education,"  says :  "  Concerning  the  method  and  the 
course  of  study  for  lessons  in  singing,  in  the  public 
schools,  the  following  points  may  be  considered  to  have 
found  general  approbation  in  Germany.  During  the  first 
two  years  of  school,  singing  is  practiced  by  rote.  The 
chief  object  here  is  the  development  of  the  voice  and 
the  musical  ear ;  later  on  instruction  is  based  upon  the 
foundation  of  reading  music.  It  is  generally  conceded 
best  to  confine  the  children's  knowledge  to  one  key, 
making  the  do  movable  as  the  occasion  requires.  In 
German  schools  a  number  of  popular  songs  of  interest 
to  children,  both  with  reference  to  text  and  melody,  are 
firmly  memorized  and  frequently  practiced.  Above  all, 
it  has  been  found  necessary  to  begin  the  singing  of 
pleasant,  catchy  airs  quite  early,  so  that  the  musical  ear 
be  trained. 

"  A  second  higher  step  in  the  singing  lesson  is  singing 
from  notes.  The  pupil  is  introduced  into  the  laws  and 
symbols  of  the  art  of  music.  A  song  which  he  has 
learned  by  rote  is  analyzed  into  its  elements,  and  the 
elements  thus  obtained  are  reduced  to  the  scale,  sharps 
and  flats  are  introduced,  and  the  various  keys  developed. 
Instruction  in  singing  from  notes  should  not  be  neglected, 
because  the  subsequent  musical  training  of  the  pupil 
makes  it  very  desirable  that  he  have  knowledge  of  music." 
Prof.  J.  Helm  says :  "  A  tone  in  itself  is  no  more  cal- 
culated to  arouse  a  child's  interest  than  a  separate  letter 
or  single  sound.  Pleasure  is  involuntarily  excited  by  a 
natural  and,  at  the  same  time,  technical  combination  of 


360  SYSTEMATIC    METHODOLOGY. 

tones  only.  Interest  is  aroused  by  the  concrete;  the 
abstract  in  itself  is  not  interesting.  Consequently  the 
elements  of  melody,  dynamics,  rhythm,  and  probably, 
musical  notation,  are  of  direct  interest  to  the  pupil  only 
when  they  rest  upon  a  concrete  foundation  of  songs. 
For  this  reason  the  technical  course  (in  vocal  music)  should 
depend  upon  songs,  and,  with  a  few  incidental  exceptions, 
the  systematic  instruction  of  singing  should  ever  proceed 
from  songs  and  lead  back  to  them." 

Based  upon  the  eminent  authorities  just  quoted,  we 
may  offer  the  following  recommendations  to  the  teacher 
of  vocal  music  :  — 

1.  Teach  the  children,  by  rote,   a  large  number  of 
bright  and  catchy  airs  suited  to  their  development. 

2.  Have  these  tunes,  together  with  their  words,  com- 
mitted to  memory,  and  sung  as  frequently  as  the  interest 
of  the  pupils  will  allow. 

3.  Revealing  through  these  the  meaning  and  use  of 
the  musical    scale,   let    this   now  occupy  the   learner's 
attention. 

4.  Remember  that  in  this  musical  instruction  there 
are  two  distinct  things  to  be  aimed  at,  —  the  training  of 
the  ear,  and,  afterwards,  the  training  of  the  voice.     In 
order  that  the  first  of  these  may  be  secured,  it  is  very 
important  that  the  teacher  sing,  or  play  a  musical  instru- 
ment, and  thus  afford  his  pupils  an  opportunity  to  hear 
the  tones  which  they  are  to  sing.     But  the  ability  to 
recognize  a  series  of  tones  does  not  imply  the  ability  to 
reproduce  them ;  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  the  chil- 
dren should  make  the  tones  when  unaided  by  the  teacher. 

5.  Teachers  should  not  ordinarily  "lead"  their  classes 


SPECIAL    ARTS.  361 

in  singing.  If  they  do,  the  children  will  learn  to  depend 
upon  such  aid,  and  will  spend  energy  in  watching  for 
what  the  leader  is  going  to  do  next,  when  they  should  be 
using  it  in  doing  the  next  thing  for  themselves. 

6.  Do  not  urge  children  to  loud  singing.  Let  the  aim 
be  to  make  melody,  and  the  greater  volume  will  come 
with  advancing  years.  Many  voices,  that  might  with 
care  have  been  made  musical  for  mature  life,  have  been 
ruined  by  the  strain  forced  upon  them  in  childhood. 
The  excellence  of  the  singing  lesson  is  not  to  be  measured 
by  the  amount  of  noise  the  class  can  make;  neither 
does  that  child  sing  best  who  can  be  heard  above  all  the 

others  in  the  class.y  n 

~ 


INDEX. 


ABSTRACT  teaching  defined,  139. 
Acquisition,  readiness  of,  33. 
Actual  realities  of  school   subjects, 

I44-173- 

Alphabetic  method  in  reading,  177. 
Analysis,     grammatical,    discussed, 

237- 
Arithmetic,  discussed,  154, 324-352; 

study  of  rules  in,  350. 
Arts,    method    in   learning   the,  9, 

136-138;  special,  discussed,  353- 

36i. 
Attention,  discussed,  88-96;   guides 

for   cultivation   of,   94;   reflex  or 

non-voluntary,  89;  relation  of,  to 

interest,  91 ;  voluntary,  89. 

CAPACITY,  mental,  discussed,  17-96. 

Character,  defined,  82;  will  in  for- 
mation of,  80. 

Class  terms,  variation  of  content 
and  extent  of,  108. 

Concept  (notion)  discussed,  97- 
122. 

Concepts,  general,  98;  individual, 
98;  methods  used  in  developing, 
in;  variation  of  content  and 
extent  of,  108. 

Conception  defined,  20. 

Concrete  teaching  defined,  139. 

Conscience,  cultivation  of,  70. 

Conscience  defined,  70. 

Consciousness  discussed,  23,  99. 


Creative  imagination  defined,  41. 
Cultivation   of   feelings  by   repres- 
sion, 64;  stimulation,  65. 

DEDUCTION  discussed,  54,  55,  ni- 

138. 

Definition,  104. 
Description,  104. 
Development  of  faculties,  17-96. 
Device  in  pedagogy  defined,  n. 
Drawing  discussed,  165,  356-358. 

FACT  defined,  131. 

Facts,  method  in  learning,  9,  135. 

Faculty,  development  of  mental, 
17-96. 

Faculty,  mental,  defined,  1 7. 

False  syntax  discussed,  251. 

Feelings,  cultivation  of,  64-71;  de- 
fined, 1 8,  60;  desirable  and  un- 
desirable, distinguished,  66;  ele- 
vation of,  68;  kinds  of,  60 ;  na- 
ture of,  60. 

"  Forget "  defined,  30. 

Freedom,  meaning  of,  75;  of  will, 
74-78- 

GENERALIZATIONS,  comprehension 
of,  8;  nature  of,  19. 

Geography,  commercial,  317;  dis- 
cussed, 155,  292-318;  foreign, 
292;  home  or  local,  292. 


363 


364 


INDEX. 


Geography,  introductory,  defined, 
292;  introductory,  discussed,  294- 
306;  methods  applicable  to  dif- 
ferent phases  of,  293;  physical, 
317;  systematic,  defined,  292; 
systematic,  discussed,  306-318; 
text-book  course  in,  314. 

Grammar,  English,  analysis  in,  237; 
discussed,  226-254;  method  in, 
233;  purpose  of,  229. 

HABIT,  formation  of,  82. 

Historic  facts,  aids  in  teaching, 
279;  and  philosophy  distin- 
guished, 265;  epochs  illustrated 
in,  269;  teaching  of,  266. 

History,  brief  outline  of  American, 
277;  discussed,  161,  260-282; 
nature  of,  148,  260-266;  phi- 
losophy of,  281 ;  use  of  biography 
in,  260. 

IDEAS  not  retained  as  entities,  29. 

Images,  mental,  discussed,  29-50, 
98-104,  in. 

Imagination,  corrupting,  46;  cre- 
ative, 41;  dangers  of,  44;  direc- 
tions for  cultivating,  49;  dis- 
cussed, 19,  39-50,  i oi;  indirect 
aids  to  culture  of,  47;  kinds  of, 
41;  limits  upon,  40;  nature  of, 
39;  over-powerful,  44;  receptive, 
41;  seductive,  45. 

Induction    discussed,   52-54,    113- 

134. 
Inference,  nature  of,  53;   necessary 

to  thinking,  53. 
Intellect  defined,  18,  21,  22. 
Interest,  relation  of,  to    attention, 

91. 
Introduction,  5. 


JUDGMENT  defined,  20. 
Judgments,   methods   applicable  in 
realm  of,  117-122. 

KNOWLEDGE,  presentative,  defined, 
1 8;  representative,  defined,  19. 

LANGUAGE  lessons,  aims  of,  213; 
discussed,  213-225;  graduated 
exercises  in,  223;  material  for, 
215;  scope  of  work  in,  216. 

Liar,  nature  of,  45. 

Literature,  critical  analysis  in,  288; 
discussed,  283-291;  method  in, 
285 ;  use  of  masterpieces  in,  290. 

MEMORY,  aids  to  cultivation  of,  37; 
discussed,  19,  29-39;  especial 
function  of,  29;  excellence  of, 
33;  mechanical,  31,  33;  rational, 
32;  defined,  29;  verbatim  com- 
mitting to,  36. 

Mental  faculty  defined,  17;  facul- 
ties, nature  and  development  of, 
17-96. 

Method,  analytic,  defined,  ill; 
deductive,  defined,  113;  distinc- 
tions of,  111-143;  general  phi- 
losophy of,  97-173;  inductive, 
defined,  113;  in  pedagogy  de- 
fined, ii;  synthetic,  defined,  112. 

Methods,  identity  of,  in  different 
subjects,  7-13;  introduction  to, 
5 ;  lines  of  investigation  in  study- 
ing, 6;  order  of  use  of  contrasted, 
124;  systematic  and  reasonable, 
5;  the  four,  distinguished,  114- 
124;  value  of  distinctions  in,  122. 

Mind-wandering,  nature  of,  92; 
remedy  for,  93. 

Motive,  nature  of,  76. 

Music,  vocal,  discussed,  358-361. 


INDEX. 


365 


NATURE  study  discussed,  319-323. 

Notion  (see  Concept),  97-122. 

Number,  course  in,  331;  funda- 
mental operations  in,  335;  idea, 
development  of,  330;  nature  of, 
324-329. 

PARSING  discussed,  249. 
Pedagogy,  a  derived  science,  14;  an 

independent  science,  14. 
Perception,  culture  of,  27;  discussed, 

1 8,      19,     25-28,     99;     original 

and  acquired,  distinguished,  26; 

strength  of,  25. 

Perceptions,  care  needed  in,  47. 
Permanence   of  mental  effects,  30, 

47- 

Phonic  method  in  reading,  179. 
Presentative     knowledge     defined, 

1 8. 
Principle  in  pedagogy  defined,  10, 

13- 

Processes,  special,  in  teaching  facts 
and  arts,  134-138. 

READING  discussed,  174-212;  ad- 
vanced, 200;  primary,  176. 

Realities,  actual,  discussed,  144- 
173;  guides  to  use  of  actual, 
146;  meaning  of  actual,  146; 
table  of  actual,  146. 

Reality,  actual,  in  advanced  read- 
ing, 149;  in  arithmetic,  154;  in 
drawing,  165;  in  geography,  155; 
in  grammar,  151;  in  history,  161; 
in  language  lessons,  150;  in 
literature,  153;  in  nature  study, 
164;  in  physiology,  164;  in 
primary  reading,  149;  in  spell- 
ing, 150;  in  writing,  167;  sub- 
stitutes for  the,  170. 


Reasoning,  deductive,  54;  defined, 
20;  inductive,  52. 

Receptive  imagination  defined,  41. 

Recognition,  practice  in,  necessary, 
35;  the  function  of  memory,  29. 

"  Remember  "  defined,  30. 

Representative  knowledge  defined, 
19. 

Reproduction,  promptness  in,  nec- 
essary, 35. 

Retention,  defined,  29;  tenacity  of, 
33- 

SEDUCTIVE  imagination,  remedy  for, 

45- 
Self- consciousness  discussed,  18,  23, 

24;   types  of,  23. 
Sensation  defined,  60. 
Senses,  best  used  conjointly,  26;   ex- 
periment upon  the,  27. 
Sensibilities,  cultivation  of  the,  64- 

71;  defined,   18,   60;  nature  of, 

60. 

Sentence  method  in  reading,  183. 
Sentiments  defined,  61. 
Spelling,  discussed,  255-259;   plans 

for  studying,  258. 
Subjects,  classification  of,  131,  146; 

completely  learned,  1 33. 

TEACHER,  successful  and  artistic, 
distinguished,  7. 

Teaching,  the  concrete  and  the  ab- 
stract in,  139-143. 

Terms,  content  and  extent  of,  105- 
no;  defined,  10-13. 

Thinking,  aids  to  development  of, 
55-59;  deductive,  54;  discussed, 
19-21,  51-59,  97-110;  inductive, 
52,  54;  nature  of,  19-21,  51; 
stages  of,  20,  52. 


366 


INDEX. 


Truths,  mental  processes  in  learn- 
ing* 7- 

UNIT    of    study    in    the    different 

branches,  146-173. 
Units  of  study,  table  of,  146. 

VISIONARY  state,  remedy  for,  44. 
Voluntary  action  analyzed,  73. 


WILL,  defined,  18,  72;  directions 
for  development  of,  84-87;  free- 
dom of,  discussed,  74-78;  im- 
portance of  developing,  78-82. 

Willed  action  analyzed,  73. 

Word  method  in  reading,  183,  188- 
199. 

Writing  (penmanship)  discussed, 
353-356. 


AN  XHITIAL  FINK  Of  « 


LD21-100m-12,'43(879P      / 


V  fi 


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